PERCEPTION

. AND
PERSONALITY IN
ORGANIZATIONS
FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE,
WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”
PERCEPTION
“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the
process through which we interpret and organize sensory
information to produce our conscious experience of objects
and object relationship.”
“ Perception is the process of receiving information about and
making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding
which information to notice, how to categorize this
information and how to interpret it within the framework of
existing knowledge.
PERCEPTION
“ A process by which individuals organize and interpret
their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to
their environment ”.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS MODEL
Environmental Stimuli

Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting

Selective Attention
THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
1. Sensation
 An individual’s ability to
detect stimuli in the
immediate environment.
2. Selection
 The process a person uses to 4. Interpretation
eliminate some of the stimuli
that have been sensed and to
retain others for further
processing.
3. Organization
 The process of placing
selected perceptual stimuli
into a framework for
“storage.”
 The stage of the perceptual
process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given
meaning.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
 Characteristics of the object
 size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty

 Perceptual context

 Characteristics of the perceiver

 attitudes
 perceptual defense
 expectations -- condition us to expect events
 Factors in the Target
• Motion
• Novelty
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
Factors in the perceiver • Proximity
• Attitudes • Similarity
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience Perception
• Expectations
Factors in the situation
• Time
• Work Setting
• Social Setting
FIGURE-GROUND ILLUSTRATION

Field-ground differentiation
 The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that
is classified as figure as
opposed to background.
PERCEPTUAL GROUPING

 Our tendency to group several individual stimuli into a

meaningful and recognizable pattern.
 It is very basic in nature and largely it seems to be
inborn.
 Some factors underlying grouping are

-continuity -closure
-proximity -similarity
ATTRIBUTION THEORY

IS THE CAUSE OF THE BEHAVIOR SEEN AS INTERNAL OR

EXTERNAL? WE LOOK FOR THREE TYPES OF INFORMATION
TO DECIDE:

DISTINCTIVENESS : Is this person’s performance different

on other tasks and in other situations?
CONSISTENCY : Over time, is there a change in behavior or
results on this task by this person?
CONSENSUS : Do others perform or behave similarly when in
a similar position?

“YES” answers lead to EXTERNAL attributions (Environmental causes)

“NO” answers lead to INTERNAL attributions (Personal causes)

 ATTRIBUTION
THEORY

When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally

or externally caused.
observation Interpretation Attribution of cause
H
External
Distictinctiveness
L Internal
H
Individual External
behavior
Consensus
L Internal

H
Internal
Consistency L
External
H –high L- Low
Distinctiveness Consensus Consistency
Does this person Do other person Does this person
behave in Behave in the behave
this manner Same manner? in this same
in other situation manner at other
times ?

Internal
Attribution
No
YES Low Yes
Low Consensus High
Distinctiveness Consistency External
Attribution
NO Yes No
High High Low
Distinctiveness Consensus Consistency
20
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ATTRIBUTIONS

 STEREOTYPES : Based on appearance

 HALO (HORN) EFFECTS : One outstanding characteristic noted
 CONTRAST EFFECT : Ordering
 RECENCY EFFECT : Limited recall
 PROJECTION : “Similar to me” Error
 SKEWING ERRORS : Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias
 SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY : People respond the way you
“expected” they would
 SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS) : Filtering, selection,
ATTRIBUTION ERRORS

 THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR

 the cause of poor performance (by others) is due to personal

factors (lazy…didn’t try very hard)

 SELF-SERVING BIAS

 the cause of poor performance (by myself) is due to situational

factors (poor support), not because of a lack of effort
IMPROVING PERCEPTUAL ACCURACY

Diversity
Management

Know Improving Empathize

Yourself With Others
Perceptual
Accuracy
Compare Postpone
Perceptions Impression
With Others Formation
KNOW YOURSELF (JOHARI WINDOW)
Feedback

Known to Self Unknown to Self

Known
to Others Open
Area Open Blind
Disclosure Area Blind
Area Area

Hidden
Area Unknown
Hidden Unknown
Area
Unknown Area Area
to Others
DEFINING PERSONALITY

Relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent

internal states that explain a person's behavioural tendencies
Sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts
with others and environment
DETERMINANTS OF
PERSONALITY
BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS

Caring, dependable

Poised, secure

Sensitive, flexible

Agreeableness Courteous, empathic

Extraversion Outgoing, talkative

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR

 Extroversion versus
introversion
 Sensing versus intuition

 Thinking versus feeling

 Judging versus perceiving

Courtesy of Thompson Doyle Hennessey & Everest

LOCUS OF CONTROL AND SELF-
MONITORING
 Locus of control
 Internalsbelieve in their effort and ability
 Externals believe events are mainly due to external causes

 Self-monitoring personality
 Sensitivityto situational cues, and ability to adapt your
behaviour to that situation
PERSONALITY TRAITS
PERSONALITY THEORIES

 Trait Theory

 Psychoanalytical theory

 Social Learning theory

 Self theory
 PERSONALITY TRAITS
 Traits are relatively stable and consistent personal
characteristics
Assumptions for Trait theory:
Traits are-
 Common but vary in absolute amounts

 Relatively stable

 Can be inferred by measuring his/her behavioral

indicators
TRAIT THEORY

 Traitpersonality theories suggest that a person

can be described on the basis of some number of
personality traits
 Allport identified some 4,500 traits
 Cattel used factor analysis to identify 30-35 basic
traits
 Problems with trait theory include: Allport
 Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop
 Issue of explaining transient versus long-lasting traits
OVERVIEW OF THE BIG “5”
THE TRAIT THEORY
UNSTABLE
Moody Touchy
Anxious Restless
Rigid Aggressive
Sober Excitable
Pessimistic Changeable
Reserved Impulsive
Unsociable Optimistic
Quiet Active
INTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED
Passive Sociable
Careful Outgoing
Thoughtful Talkative
Peaceful Responsive
Controlled Easygoing
Reliable Lively
Even-tempered Carefree
Calm Leadership
STABLE
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
 Psychoanalytic theory, as devised by Freud, attempts to explain
personality on the basis of unconscious mental forces
 Levels of consciousness: We are unaware of some aspects of our
mental states
 Freud argued that personality is made up of multiple structures, some
of which are unconscious
 Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us anxiety; our
personality develops defense mechanisms to protect against anxiety
 FREUDIAN THEORY
Levels of consciousness Structures of Personality
 Conscious  Id
 What we’re aware  Operates according to the
of “pleasure principle”
 Preconscious  Ego
 Memories etc. that  Operates according to the

can be recalled “reality” principle

 Unconscious  Superego
 Wishes, feelings,  Contains values and ideals

impulses that lies

beyond awareness
 DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 Defensemechanisms refer to unconscious mental
processes that protect the conscious person from
developing anxiety
 Sublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable
impulses to create socially acceptable accomplishments
 Denial: person refuses to recognize reality
 Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable
impulses to others
 Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into the
unconscious
 DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable reasons
 Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of a
painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts,
words, or ideas
 Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge
unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by exaggerating
the opposite state
 Regression: Responding to a threatening situation in a
way appropriate to an earlier age or level of development
 Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object for
the original object of impulse
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

 It emphasizes on how an individual behaves or acts in a

given situation.

 It holds the view that the specific characteristics of a

situation determine how an individual will behave in
such situation.
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES
Carl Rogers’ self theory :
 Self image

 Ideal self

 Looking self glass

 Rreal self
SELF THEORY
 We have needs for:
 Self-consistency (absence of conflict between self-
perceptions
 Congruence (consistency between self-perceptions

and experience)
 Inconsistency evokes anxiety and threat
 People with low self-esteem generally have poor
congruence between their self-concepts and life
experiences.
HOW PERSONALITY DEVELOPS OR
SHAPES?
Some findings:

 Freud’s four stages

 Erikson’s eight life stages

 Argyris Immaturity to maturity stages

FREUD’S FOUR STAGES

 The Oral stage- Lasts for the first year

 The Anal stage- Two to three years

 The phallic stage- At the age of four years

 The latency stage- B/w age of six to seven years

 The genital stage-During adolescences & adulthood

FREUD: CRITICISMS AND CRITIQUES
 He studied very few people so not representative
sample
 Process of psychoanalysis interviewing- exhibit
preconceived notions and biases
 His measures/methods were untreatable
 Definitions don’t lend themselves to
experimentation
 One’s personality is fixed and unchanging

ERIKSON’S EIGHT LIFE STAGES

 Infancy- first year

 Early childhood- Two and three years

 Play age-Four and Five years

 School age-Six to twelve years

 Adolescence-Teenage period

 Young adulthood- During Twenties

 Old(sunset) age- Adult

ARGYRIS IMMATURITY TO MATURITY
STAGES

From:
 Passivity to activity

 Dependence to Independence

 Selective behavior

 Shallow interest to deep interest

 Short term perspective to long perspective

 Subordinate position to superordinate position

 Lack of self awareness to self awreness and control

MEASURING PERSONALITY
 Self report surveys
 Projective tests ( Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic
Appreciation Test)
 Assessment Centres
 ASSESSING THE
UNCONSCIOUS
 Projective Tests
 used to assess personality (e.g., Rorschach or TAT tests)
 How? provides ambiguous stimuli and subject projects his or
her motives into the ambiguous stimuli
ASSESSING THE
UNCONSCIOUS -- RORSCHACH

 Rorschach Inkblot Test

 the most widely used projective test
 a set of 10 inkblots designed by
Hermann Rorschach

Rorschach
ASSESSING THE
UNCONSCIOUS--RORSCHACH

used to identify
people’s inner
feelings by
analyzing their
interpretations
of the blots
ASSESSING THE
UNCONSCIOUS--TAT
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

People express their inner motives through the

stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

AM I A TYPE-A?
IDENTIFY THE NUMBER ON THE SCALE THAT BEST CHARACTERIZES YOUR BEHAVIOR
FOR EACH TRAIT.

Casual about appointments Never late

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Not competitive Very competitive

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Never feel rushed Always feel rushed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Take things one at a time Try to do many
things at once
3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slow doing things Fast (eating, walking, etc.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Express feelings "Sit on" feelings
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Many interests Few interests outside work
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
RESULTS
A total of 120 or more indicates that you are a hard-core Type A.
Scores below 90 indicate that you are a hard-core Type B. The
following gives you more specifics:

120 or more points = A+ personality type

106-119 = A
100-105 = A
90-99 = B+
Less than 90 = B
If you score in the "A" categories, you need to be aware of your
tendency to focus on quantity over quality. You may do better in
jobs that are routine and rely on speed rather than creativity for
success. In addition, Type As often experience moderate to high
levels of stress.
WHAT'S MY BASIC PERSONALITY?
1 2 3 4 5

Quiet Talkative

Tolerant Critical

Disorganized Organized

Tense Calm

Imaginative Conventional

Reserved Outgoing
Uncooperative Cooperative

Unreliable Dependable

Insecure Secure

New Familiar

Sociable Loner

Suspicious Trusting

Undirected Goal-oriented

Enthusiastic Depressed

Change Status quo