Sources of Energy

Commercial Energy Sources

The most commercialized forms of commercial energy

sources are electricity, coal, and advanced petroleum
products. They are used for electricity generation on the
basis of industrial, agricultural, transportation, and
commercial development of the different countries of the
modern world.
Comparison of Energy Sources
Energy Consumption
Energy Distribution
Sources of Fuel
 Need For Non Conventional Energy Sources

The growing consumption of energy has resulted in the

country becoming increasingly dependent on fossil fuels such
as coal, oil and gas.
Rising prices of oil and gas and their potential shortages have
raised uncertainties about the security of energy supply in
future, which has serious repercussions on the growth of the
national economy.
Increasing use of fossil fuels also causes serious
environmental problems.
Hence, there is a primary need to use renewable energy
sources like solar, wind, tidal, biomass and energy from waste
material. They are called non-conventional sources of energy.
 Energy Alternatives
• Wind Energy. ...
• Solar Energy. ...
• Hydroelectric Energy. ...
• Geothermal Energy. ...
• Bioenergy. ...
• Nuclear Energy. ...
• Hydrogen Energy. ...
• Tidal Energy.
 Salient Features Of Non-conventional
Energy Resources
Merits:
1. NCES are available in nature, free of cost.
2. 2. They cause no or very little pollution. Thus, by and large,
they are environmental friendly.
3. 3. They are inexhaustible.
4. 4. They have low gestation period.
.
 Demerits
Demerits:
1) Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing
energy from NCES is high, as in general, these are available
in dilute forms of energy.
2) Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on
various natural phenomena beyond human control.
3) Difficulty in transporting this form of energy
 Advantages Of Conventional Energy
Resources
ADVANTAGES:
1) Coal at present is cheap.
2) Security: By storing certain quantity, the energy availability
can be ensured for a certain period.
3) Convenience: It is very convenient to use.
 Disadvantages Of Conventional Energy
Resources
1) Fossil fuels generate pollutants, pose health hazards & cause
various other problems.
2) Coal: It is also valuable petro-chemical & used as source of
raw material for chemical, pharmaceuticals & paints, industries,
etc. From long term point of view, it is desirable to conserve coal
for future needs.
3) Safety of nuclear plants: It is a controversial subject.
4) Hydro electrical plants are cleanest but large hydro reservoirs
cause the following problems a) As large land area submerges
into water, which leads to deforestation b) Causes ecological
disturbances such as earthquakes.
 Solar Energy
 Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The
power from the Sun intercepted by the earth is approximately
1.8×1011 MW which is many thousands of time larger than the
present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy
sources. Thus, in principle solar energy could supply all the present
& future energy needs of the world on a continuing basis. This makes
it one of the most promising of the unconventional energy sources.
 Solar energy is received in the form of radiation, can be converted
directly or indirectly into other forms of energy, such as heat &
electricity..
 Solar energy reaching the top of the Earth‘s atmosphere consists
about 8% U.V radiation, 46% of visible light, 46% Infrared radiation.
 Thermal Energy
Thermal energy refers to the internal energy present in a system
in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium by virtue of its
temperature. The average transitional kinetic energy possessed by
free particles in a system of free particles in thermodynamic
equilibrium. This energy comes from the temperature of matter.
There are 3 modes of thermal energy
1. Conduction.
2. Convection.
3. Radiation
 Thermal Energy
1. Conduction: Heat is transferred from one molecule to another
without the movement of matter.
2. Convection: Fluids (liquids & gases) transfer heat by
convection, a process that causes mixing of the warmer regions
with the cooler regions of liquid or gas. The main difference
between convection & conduction is that convection involves the
movement of matter & conduction does not.
3. Radiation: it is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves
Conduction Method/ Heat Transfer
 Photovoltaic or Solar Cell
• PV‘s are made up of semiconductors that generate electricity
when they absorb light. As photons are received, free electrical
charges are generated that can be collected on contacts applied
to the surface of the semiconductors. Because of solar cells are
not heat engines, & therefore, do not need to operate at higher
temperature, they are adapted to the weak energy flux of solar
radiation, operating at room temperature.
Water Power/ Hydro Power
 Working Principle of Hydro Power
Hydropower is a mature and fairly simple technology: the
potential energy of a water source (characterized by its head
and mass flow rate) is converted into kinetic energy that spins
a turbine driving an electricity generator.
Biomass Power
 Working Principle of Biomass Power
Biomass power is carbon neutral electricity generated from
renewable organic waste that would otherwise be dumped in
landfills, openly burned, or left as fodder for forest fires. When
burned, the energy in biomass is released as heat.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
 Working Principle of OTEC
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) technology uses a
turbine generator to create renewable energy from the
temperature difference between cold, deep seawater circulating in
the ocean and surface seawater warmed by the sun. In order to
produce power with the low temperature range, a working fluid
with low boiling point is used.
The amount of energy created is dependent on the amount of
water available to cool or heat the working fluid
Wave Power (OWC)
 Working Principle Oscillation Water
Columns (OWC)
Oscillation Water Columns (OWC) is a partially submerged
enclosed structure. the upper part of the structure, above the
water, is filled with air and incoming waves are funneled into the
bottom part of the structure. When these waves come through the
structure it causes the water column to rise and fall with the wave
which causes the air in the top structure to pressurize and
depressurize. this in turn pushes and pulls air through a
connected air turbine at the top of the structure, converting the
energy.
Wave/Tidal Power
Tidal Barrage Turbine
Tidal Fence Turbine
Tidal Turbine
Geothermal Power
Working Principle of Geothermal Power
Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well
under high pressure. When the water reaches the surface, the
pressure is dropped, which causes the water to turn into steam.
The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that
produces electricity.
Tar Sand/Oil Sand
 Tar Sands/Oil Sands
Tar sands (also called oil sands) are a mixture of sand, clay,
water, and bitumen. Bitumen is a thick, sticky, black oil that can
form naturally in a variety of ways, usually when lighter oil is
degraded by bacteria.
Oil Shale Specimen
 Oil Shale
Oil shale is a type of sedimentary rock formation that can be used
to produce oil and gas. Oil shale can produce oil and gas because
of the presence of kerogen, a type of organic matter that burns
when exposed to flame.
Shale oil is similar to petroleum, and can be refined into many
different substances, including diesel fuel, gasoline, and liquid
petroleum gas (LPG). Companies can also refine shale oil to
produce other commercial products, such as ammonia and sulfur.
The spent rock can be used in cement.
Nuclear Power
 Working Principle of Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is the controlled use of nuclear energy. Nuclear
energy can be released by nuclear reactions in a machine called a
nuclear reactor. This energy boils water for a steam engine to
make electricity, which then can be used to power machines and
homes.
Nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling water to
make steam, which turns turbines to produce electricity.
Nuclear power plants use low-enriched uranium fuel to produce
electricity through a process called fission—the splitting of
uranium atoms in a nuclear reactor.
Comparison Between Conventional & Non-
Conventional Energy Sources
Measurement of Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
 Pyranometer
• Thermopile
As the name implies, it uses a thermocouple used to notice dissimilarity
in temperature between two surfaces. These are hot (labeled active) and
cold (reference) accordingly. The labeled active surface is a black surface
in flat shape and it is exposed to the atmosphere. The reference surface
depends on the difficulty of the pyranometer because it changes from a
second control thermopile to the covering of the pyranometer itself.
• Glass Dome
Glass dome in the pyrometer limits the response of spectral from 300 nm
to 2800 nm from 180 degrees of view. It also protects the thermopile
sensor from rain, wind, etc. This construction of the second dome gives
extra radiation protection among the inner dome & sensor compared to a
single dome because a second dome will reduce the instrument offset.
 Pyranometer
• Occultation Disc
The occultation disc is mainly used to measure the radiation of
blocking beam & diffuse radiation from the panel surface.
• Pyranometer Working Principle
The working principle of the Pyranometer mainly depends on the
difference in temperature measurement between two surfaces like
dark and clear. The solar radiation can be absorbed by the black
surface on the thermopile whereas the clear surface reproduces it,
so less heat can be absorbed.
Pyranometer
Pyranometer Without Shadow Ring
Shadow Ring for Pyranometer
Pyrheliometer
Pyrheliometer
 Pyrheliometer
The pyrheliometer is one type of instrument, used to measure the
direct beam of solar radiation at the regular occurrence. This
instrument is used with a tracking mechanism to follow the sun
continuously. It is responsive to wavelengths bands that range
from 280 nm to 3000 nm. The units of irradiance are W/m².
These instruments are specially used for weather monitoring &
climatological research purposes.
 Pyrheliometer
The external structure of the Pyrheliometer instrument looks like
a telescope because it is a lengthy tube. By using this tube, we
can spot the lens toward the sun to calculate the radiance. The
Pyrheliometer basic structure is shown below. Here the lens can
be pointed in the direction of the sun & the solar radiation will
flow throughout the lens, after that tube & finally at the last part
where the last apart includes a black object at the bottom.
The irradiance of solar enters into this device through a crystal
quartz window and directly reaches onto a thermopile. So this
energy can be changed from heat to an electrical signal that can
be recorded.
Sunshine Recorder
 Sunshine Recorder
A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount of
sunshine at a given location or region at any time. The results
provide information about the weather and climate as well as the
temperature of a geographical area. This information is useful in
meteorology, science, agriculture, tourism, and other fields. It has
also been called a heliograph.
There are two basic types of sunshine recorders. One type uses
the sun itself as a time-scale for the sunshine readings. The other
type uses some form of clock for the time scale.
Extra Terrestrial Radiation
 Solar Constant
Solar constant, the total radiation energy received from the Sun
per unit of time per unit of area on a theoretical surface
perpendicular to the Sun's rays and at Earth's mean distance from
the Sun.
The solar constant is used to quantify the rate at which energy is
received upon a unit surface such as a solar panel.
mean value of 1370 watts per square meter is received at the
outer layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
4 Main factors of Solar Radiation on Earth
Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface
• Atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
• Local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour,
clouds, and pollution;
• Latitude of the location &
• The season of the year and the time of day.
How change in Latitude affects Solar
Radiation on Earth
Solar Radiation
 Solar Radiation
The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without being
diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the
diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar radiation.
Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10%
on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick, cloudy days.
 MODULE 2

• Solar Radiation Geometry

• Radiation Flux on a Tilted Surface

• Solar Thermal Conversion.

 Local Solar Time(Local Apparent Time
(LAT)
Local Solar Time can be calculated from standard time by
applying two corrections. The first correction arises due to the
difference in longitude of the location and meridian on which
standard time is based. The correction has a magnitude of
4minutes for every degree difference in longitude. Second
correction called the equation of time correction is due to the fact
that earth‘s orbit and the rate of rotation are subject to small
perturbations. This is based on the experimental observations.
Thus, Local Solar Time=Standard time± 4(Standard time
Longitude-Longitude of the location)+(Equation of time
correction)
 How to determine LAT
To determine LAT, multiply the difference in time between local
standard clock time and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) by 15°.
This relationship comes from the fact that the sun takes 4 minutes
to traverse 1° of longitude. Thus, if your local standard clock is 1
hour behind GMT then LST is 15°.

Local Solar/Apparent Time= Standard Time(+-) 4 (Lst- Lloc)+E

Where E= 9.87 Sin 2B – 7.53 Cos B – 1.5 Sin B min
Where B= (360/364) (n-81)
n= Day of the year starting from 1st January.
 Apparent Motion of the Sun
The apparent motion of the sun, caused by the rotation of the
Earth about its axis, changes the angle at which the direct
component of light will strike the Earth. From a fixed location
on Earth, the sun appears to move throughout the sky.
 Day Length
The time between sunrise and sunset
(i.e. the duration of daylight), especially as it varies at different
times of the year or at different latitudes; or (b) the time from one
sunrise to the next (on earth currently 24 hours).
Latitude & Longitude
Declination/ Declination Angle
Declination/Declination Angle
Altitude Angle/Solar Altitude
Zenith Angle
Hour Angle
How to calculate Solar Angle
Hour Angle
Inclination Angle
Solar Azimuth Angle
Solar Azimuth Angle
Surface Azimuth Angle
Zenith Angle
Slope/Tilt Angle
Angle of incidence
 Solar Radiation Geometry
Latitude (Angle of Latitude) (Ф): It is the angle made by a Radial line
joining the given location to the center of the earth with its projection
on the equator plane.
Declination (δ): It is defined as the Angular displacement of the sun
from the plane of the Earth’s Equator.
Hour Angle (ω): It is the angle through which the earth must turn to
bring the meridian of a point directly in line with the sun’s rays.
It is defined as the time since an object was directly overhead. Negative
values indicate that an object is in the east (still rising), while positive
values indicate that the object has already passed zenith (setting).
Inclination Angle (Altitude) or Solar Altitude Angle (α): Angle between
the Sun’s ray & its projection on the horizontal surface.
 Solar Radiation Geometry
Zenith Angle (θz): The solar zenith angle is the angle between the sun's
rays and the vertical direction.
Solar Azimuth Angle (γs): It is the Horizontal angle measured from
North to the Horizontal projection of the Sun’s rays.
Slope (Tilt Angle) (β): The angle between the horizontal plane and the
solar panel is called the tilt angle.
Surface Azimuth Angle (γ): It is the angle between Normal to the
Surface & South direction.
Angle of incidence (θi): It is the angle between sun’s ray incident on
the plane surface (collector) & the normal to that surface.
Zenith: Zenith is the imaginary point that is directly above a particular
location on the celestial sphere, directly opposite to the gravity.
 Solar Radiation Geometry
Solar Incident angle(θ): It is the angle between an incident beam
radiation falling on the collector and normal to the plane surface
Meridian: Meridian is the imaginary line passing through a point
or place on earth and north and south poles of the earth.
Indian Standard Time (IST) Zones
State-Wise Time zones
 Solar Thermal Conversion
Solar thermal technologies are designed to convert the incident
solar radiation into usable heat. The process of solar heat
conversion implies using energy collectors - the specially
designed mirrors, lenses, heat exchangers, which would
concentrate the radiant energy from the sun and transfer it to a
carrier fluid.
Schematic Representation
Liquid Flat Plate Collectors
Flat Plate Collector
 Working Principle of Flat Plate Collector
FPCs consist of a flat darkened plate that absorbs thermal energy
transferred to a working fluid. Transparent structures cover the
absorber to allow solar penetration and limit both convection and
radiation losses, and thermal insulation of the collector case
reduces conduction losses.
The operation of a flat plate collector is based on heat transfer.
Solar radiation falls on the heat-absorbing plate of the collector.
When incident solar radiation hits the absorbing plate surface,
part of its energy is converted into heat.
Solar Air Heater
 Working Principle of Solar Air Heater
Warm air rises and cool air sinks, the solar air heater pulls cooled
air from the bottom of a room, circulates it through the solar
collector where it picks up heat, then blows the warmed air back
into the room.
Sensible & Latent Heat Storage
Sensible Heat Storage
Latent Heat Storage
 Space Heating
Active & Passive System
Heating of spaces especially for human comfort by any means
(such as fuel, electricity, or solar radiation) with the heater either
within the space or external to it.
The two basic types of active solar space-heating systems use
either liquid or air as the heat-transfer medium in their solar
energy collectors. Liquid-based systems heat water or an
antifreeze solution in a hydronic collector. Air-based systems heat
air in an air collector.
Passive solar space heating takes advantage of warmth from the
sun through design features, such as large south-facing windows,
and materials in the floors or walls that absorb warmth during the
day and release that warmth at night when it is needed most.
 Space Cooling
Active & Passive System
Active cooling refers to cooling technologies that rely on an
external device to enhance heat transfer. Through active cooling
technologies, the rate of fluid flow increases during convection,
which dramatically increases the rate of heat removal.
Passive cooling focuses on heat gain control and heat dissipation
in a building in order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with
low or no energy consumption.
Example for Space Cooling
Example for Space Heating
Heat Sink (Heat Transfer)
Solar Distillation
 Working Principle
Solar water distillation is the process of using energy from the
sunlight to separate freshwater from salts or other contaminants.
The untreated water absorbs heat, slowly reaching high
temperatures. The heat causes the water to evaporate, cool, and
condense into vapour, leaving the contaminants behind.
 Solar Refrigeration
Instead of compressor, the heat of the sun is used to increase the
pressure of the gas. From here solar refrigerator works as a
common refrigerator: gas again turns into a liquid, heat is
removed, the liquid evaporates and lowers the temperature.

What is a Refrigerant?
Refrigerant is a cooling agent that absorbs heat and leaves cool
air behind when passed through a compressor and evaporator. It
fluctuates between a liquid or gas state as it goes through the
thermodynamic process.
 Working of a Refrigerant
• The refrigerant begins as a liquid when it passes through the
expansion device in your unit. It expands and cools due to the
sudden drop in pressure causing it to turn into a gas.
• As the gaseous refrigerant passes through the copper evaporator coil
inside the unit, it absorbs the heat from the products inside.
• The unit’s compressor then pulls the refrigerant gas and the absorbed
heat away from the food products, increasing the pressure of the gas.
• The hot, high-pressure refrigerant then passes through the condenser
coils. As it does so, it radiates its heat into the atmosphere and cools
back into a liquid.
• The liquid refrigerant reenters the expansion device and the process
begins again.
Working of Refrigerants
Components of a Domestic Refrigerator
Photovoltaic Refrigeration System
Solar Powered Refrigeration System
Solar Absorption Refrigeration System
Photovoltaic & Solar Powered Refrigeration
system
Photovoltaic Refrigeration System:
A photovoltaic refrigeration system works by converting
sunlight into DC current. This DC current drives a DC motor
which is coupled to a compressor of a vapour compression
system.

Solar Refrigeration System:

It's a refrigerator that operates on energy directly delivered by
the sun and can include solar thermal or photovoltaic energy.
 Vapour Absorption & Compression
Refrigeration System
• The Vapour absorption refrigeration systems include all
processes in a vapor compression refrigeration system, such as
compression, condensation, expansion, and evaporation—the
refrigerant used in Vapour absorption systems are ammonia,
water, or lithium bromide.
• The refrigerant condenses in the condenser & evaporates in
evaporation. The refrigerants produce a cooling effect in the
evaporator & release heat to the atmosphere through the
condenser.
• In a Vapour compression system, the compressor sucks the
refrigerant from the evaporator and compresses it under high
pressure.
Solar Power Generation
 Solar Power Generation
Working Principle

Solar PV systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity.

The PV cell consists of one or two layers of a semi conducting
material, usually silicon. When light shines on the cell it creates
an electric field across the layers causing electricity to flow.
Schematic Representation of Solar Pond
 Working Principle of Solar Pond
A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in
size, that looks like a pond. This type of solar energy collector
uses a large, salty lake as a kind of a flat plate collector that
absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the warm, lower layers
of the pond.
These ponds must be clear for them to operate properly, as
sunlight cannot penetrate to the bottom of the pond if the water is
murky. When sunlight is incident on these ponds, most of the
incoming sunlight reaches the bottom and thus the "storage
zone" heats up.
 Working Principle of Solar Pond
However, this newly heated water cannot rise and thus heat loss
upwards is prevented. The salty water cannot rise because it is
heavier than the fresh water that is on top of the pond, and thus the
upper layer prevents convection currents from forming. Because of
this, the top layer of the pond acts as a type of insulating blanket, and
the main heat loss process from the storage zone is stopped.
The surface zone is mixed and kept cool by winds and heat loss by
evaporation. This top zone must also be flushed continuously with
fresh water to ensure that there is no accumulation of salt in the top
layer, since the salt from the bottom layer diffuses through the saline
gradient over time.[2] Additionally, a solid salt or brine mixture must
be added to the pond frequently to make up for any upwards salt
loses.