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 OSH4113
Lecture by: LALITA
ANBARASEN

CHAPTER 3: THE
PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic Table of the Elements

 In 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendel 1834–1907) (Figure 2.14) and the
German chemist J. Lothar Meyer (1830–1895), working independently, made similar
discoveries.

 They found that when they arranged the elements in order of atomic mass, they
could place them in horizontal rows, one row under the other, so that the elements
in each vertical column have similar properties.

 A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the regular

repetition of properties of the elements, is called a periodic table.

 Eventually, more accurate determinations of atomic masses revealed discrepancies

in this ordering of the elements.
 However, in the early part of this century, it was shown that the elements are
characterized by their atomic numbers, rather than atomic masses.

 When the elements in the periodic table are ordered by atomic number, such
discrepancies vanish.

 A modern version of the periodic table, with the elements arranged by atomic
number
The Arrangement in the Periodic Table of Elements

Modern Periodic Table of Elements

 The elements are arranged in an orderly and systematically manner

in the Periodic Table of Elements.

 The elements with the similar chemical properties are grouped

together in the Periodic Table of Elements

 Each vertical column in the Periodic Table of Elements is called

Group.

 There are eighteen columns in the Periodic Table of Elements

numbered1 to 18.
 Each horizontal row in the Periodic Table of Elements is called Period.
 The Periodic Table of Elements contains seven periods numbered 1 to
7.

 Each period contains elements with chemical and physical properties

that change gradually from metal to non-metal.

 The elements are arranged from left to right in ascending order of

proton numbers.

 The Modern Periodic Table of Elements consists of 18 Groups which

are Group 1 to Group 18.

 Group 1 is made up of highly reactive metals.

 Group 18 comprising of noble gas which are non-reactive gases
(chemically inert).

 All transition elements are metals and exhibit the physical properties
of metals.

 The information obtained from the Periodic Table of Elements can be

summarized as
Relationship between the Proton Number and the Position of
Elements in the Periodic Table of Elements

 Based on the aspects of groups and periods, we can see the

relationship between the proton number and the position of
elements in the Periodic Table of Elements.

 The number of valence electrons, that is, the electrons located in the
outermost shell of an atom, determines the position of group of the
elements in the Periodic Table of Elements.
 From the electron arrangement in the Periodic Table of Elements in Figure 4.3, it can be
shown that

(a) the elements having the same number of valence electrons are placed in the same group
(b) The number of valence electrons determine the group of elements in the periodic table of
elements
(c) The period of and element is equals to the number of shells filled with electrons.
(d) The position of elements in the periodic table of elements can be determined by looking at
the number of valence electron and number of shells filled with electron for the element.
Elements in Group 18

 Group 18 in the Periodic Table of Elements consists of helium, neon,

argon, krypton, xenon, radon and oganesson.

 Group 18 elements are also known as noble gases or inert gases.

 A noble gas has maximum number of valence electrons in its

outermost shell, which is two or eight valenceelectrons.

 The electron arrangement of elements of Group 18 (duplet or octet)

is very stable.

 Group 18 elements do not need to donate, accept or share electrons

either individually or with the other elements
 It is difficult for elements of Group 18 to form compounds compared to other elements.
Therefore, a noblegas is inert (chemically unreactive).

 This inert property allows all noble gases to exist as monoatoms at room conditions.
Changes in Physical Properties of Elements when Going Down Group
18

 The elements of Group 18 have the following physical properties:

(a)Low melting and boiling points

(b) Do not conduct electricity and heat

(c) Weak conductor of heat

(d) Monoatomic gases at room temperature

(e) Low density

 The physical properties of Group 18 elements change gradually when
going down the group.
 Uses of group 18 element in daily life.
Elements in Group 1

 Group 1 in the Periodic Table of Element is made up of alkali

metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and
francium.

Changes in Physical Properties of Elements when Going Down Group

1

The elements of Group 1 have the following physical properties:

(a) Soft and shiny solids (metal)

(b) Can conduct electricity

(c) Can conduct heat

(d) Exist in solid state at room temperature

(e) The melting point and boiling point are lower compared to other
metals

(f) Low density

 The physical properties of Group 1 elements change gradually when

going down the group.

 The hardness of elements decrease when going down the group. For
example, lithium is more difficult to cutwith a small blades than
sodium.

 This is because the metallic bond between lithium atom is stronger

than the metallic bond between sodium atom.
Chemical Properties of Group 1 Elements

 All alkali metal atoms have one valence electron, which is one
electron in the valence shell (an outermost shellfilled with electron).

 Alkali metals are highly reactive and can react with substances such
as water, oxygen gas and chlorine gas.

 All alkali metals exhibit the same chemical properties when reacting
with a particular substance.

 The valence electrons play an important rolein determining the

chemical properties of an element. The chemical reactions involve
only valence electrons.
 The elements of Group 1 have the samechemical properties as they
have the same number of valence electrons, one electron in the
outermost shell.
Changes in Reactivity of Elements Going Down Group 1

 The element of Group 1 has one valence electron.

 During chemical reactions, the alkali metal atoms tend to donate one
electron in the valence shell to achievea stable electron arrangement
(octet or dupler electron arrangement).

 This reaction forms a positive ion with a +1 charge.

NN+ + e
 Because of a single electron in an atom is easily released, the alkali
metal element is highly reactive andvery strongly with other
elements such as water and oxygen gas.

 All alkali metals will lose one valence electron in the valence shell to
form positive ions (cations).

 The reactivity of alkali metal increases when going down the group.
This can be explained as follows:

(a)When going down the group, the atomic size increases.

(b) The valence electron in the valence shell becomes further away from
the nucleus.
(c) The attraction force of the nucleus to the valence electron becomes
weaker.
(d) The valence electron becomes easier to be donated in the chemical
reactions
 Sodium atomic size larger than
Lithium atom

 The distance between the nucleus

and the valance electron of sodium
atom is larger.

 The attraction force between the

nucleus and the valence electron
becomes weaker for sodium atom

 The tendency of sodium atom to

donate the valance electron is
greater than that of Lithium atom.

 Therefore, sodium atoms more

reactive than lithium.
Elements in Group 17

 Group 17 in the Periodic Table of Elements consists of non-metallic

elements known as halogens.

 Elements of Group 17 include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine,

astatine and tennessine.
Changes in Physical Properties of Elements when Going Down Group
17

 The elements of Group 17 have the following physical properties

(a)Very low melting and boiling points

(b) Do not conduct electricity and heat
(c) Have intense smell and poisonous
(d) Low density
(e) Exist as diatomic molecules at room conditions(FC, Bryl, At, andTs)
 The presence of very weak attraction force between particles (Van
der Waals force) explains why the boiling point of the elements in
Group 17is low. Only a small amount of heat is required to overcome
this attraction force to separate halogen molecules

 The physical properties of Group 17 elements change gradually when

going down the group.
Chemical Properties of Group 17 Elements

 All halogens have 7 valence electrons, in which 7 electrons in the

valence shell

 Halogen elements such as chlorine, bromine and iodine exhibit the

similar chemical properties when reacting with:

(a)water to produce two types of acids.

(b) iron to produce iron(III) halide.
(c) sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium salt and water.
Reaction of Group 17 Elements with Water, Metal and Alkali

 Chlorine, bromine and iodine have the same chemical properties but
different reactivity.

Reaction of Group 17 Elements with Water

 The reactivity of the reaction between halogens with water decrease

when going down the group.

 Halogens react with water to form an acidic solution.

 Chlorine dissolves in water to form a mixture of hydrochloric acid

andhypochlorous acid (bleaching agent). The light yellow solution is
called chlorine water (chlorine solution).

Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

 Bromine dissolves in water to form a mixture of hydrobromic acid
and hypobromous acid. The reddish brownsolution is called bromine
water (bromine solution).

Br2(1) + H2O(l) HBr(aq) + HOBr(aq)

 Bromine water is also a bleaching agent but is less effective than

chlorine water.

 lodine does not dissolve easily in cold water. It only dissolves slightly
in hot water to produce a mixture ofhydroiodic acid and hypoio
dous acid. The resulting brownish yellow solution is called iodine
water (iodine solution). Iodine water is not a bleaching agent.

I2(s) + H2O(1) Hl(aq) + HOl(aq)

Reaction of Group 17 Elements with Metal

 Chlorine gas reacts vigorously with iron to produce a brown solid of

iron(III) chloride.

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(8) 2FeCl3(s)

 Sodium hydroxide solution in this experiment is used to absorb

excess chlorine gas or bromine vapour.

 Bromine vapour reacts with iron to produce a brown solid of

iron(III) bromide.

2Fe(s) + 3Br2(1) 2FeBr3(s)

 Solid iodine reacts with iron to produce a brown solid of iron(II)
iodide.

2Fe(s) + 312(g) 2Fel3(s)

 Halogen is a very electronegative element. Halogens tend to combine

with other metals to form metal halides.

 All halogens show similar chemical properties in their reaction with

iron.
Reaction of Group 17 Elements with Alkali

 Chlorine reacts vigorously with sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium

chloride solution, sodium hypochlorite (sodium chlorate(1)) solution and water.

Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)

 Bromine reacts less vigorously with sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium
bromide solution, sodium hypobromite (sodium bromate(1)) solution and water.

Br2() + 2NaOH(aq) - NaBr(aq) + NaOBr(aq) + H2O(l)

 lodine reacts slowly with sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium iodide and
sodium hypoiodite (sodium iodate(1)) solution and water.

I2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) — Nal(aq) + NaOl(aq) + H20(l)

 All halogens show similar chemical properties in their reactions with sodium
hydroxide solution.
Changes in Reactivity of Elements Down Group 17

 Elements of Group 17 have the same chemical properties because

they have the same number of valenceelectrons, which is 7 electrons
in the outermost shell.

 Each element of Group 17 has 7 valence electrons, that is 7 electrons

in the valence shell.

 During a chemical reaction, these atoms accept one electron in the

valence shell to achieve a stable electronarrangement (octet electron
arrangement). This reaction forms a negative ion, such as F-, Cl-, Br,
land At with a -1 charge.
 The reactivity of halogens decreases when going down the group. This
can be explained as follows:

(a)When going down the group, the atomic size increases.

(b) The distance of the valence shell becomes further away from the
nucleus.

(c) The attraction force of the nucleus to the electrons in the valence
shell becomes weaker.

(d) The tendency for atoms to accept one electron to achieve an octet
electron arrangement decreases.
 Chlorine atomic size is larger than fluorine
atom.
 The distance between the nucleus and the
valence electrons of chlorineatom is larger.
 The attraction force between the nucleus and
the valence electronsbecomes weaker for
chlorine atom.
 The tendency of chlorine atom to accept the
valence electron is lowerthan that of fluorine
atom.
 Therefore, chlorine atom is less reactive than
fluorine atom.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Other Elements in Group 17

 Astatine is under iodine in Group 17 of the Periodic Table of

Elements.

 Therefore, astatine is expected to react with water, iron and sodium

hydroxide solution in the same way asiodine but slower (less reactive)
than iodine.

 Astatine is a rare radioactive element because it is not chemically

stable.
Elements in period 3

 Periods are horizontal rows in the Periodic table.

 There are seven periods in Periodic table.

 Going across the periods from left to right, the proton number
increases by one from one element to the next element.
Changes in Physical Properties of Elements Across Period 3

 When crossing a period from left to right, the physical properties

change according to a particular pattern.

 The atomic radius (atomic size) decreases across Period 3 from left to
right. This is because across Period3

(a)the number of protons increase from one element to the following

element. This causes an increase of positive charge of the nucleus.

(b) the attraction force of the nucleus towards the electrons in the first
three shells becomes stronger.

(c) the increase of the attraction force between the nucleus and the
electrons causes the atomic size of the element to decrease.
 The electronegativity increases (i.e. the tendency to accept more
electrons) across Period 3 from left to right.This is because:

(a)across Period 3, the atomic size decreases while the positive charge
of the nucleus increases.

(b) the atoms are more likely to accept electrons to achieve stability
(octet electron arrangement)

(c) the electronegativity increases across Period 3.

 The melting point and boiling point increase from sodium to silicon.
The melting point and boiling point then,decrease from phosphorus
to argon.
 The elements change from metallic properties to semi-metallic
properties and then, to non-metallic properties when crossing Period
3.
Changes in Chemical Properties of Oxides Elements Across Period 3

 When acrossing Period 3, the properties of elements change from

basic oxide to amphoteric oxide and then to acidic oxide

 Metal oxides are basic while non-metal oxides are acidic.

 Metal oxides that only show basic properties are called basic metal
oxides.

 Non-metal oxides that only show acidic properties are called acidic
non-metal oxides

 The metal oxides which dissolve in water can form an alkaline solution
 The non-metal oxides which dissolve in water can form an acidic
solution.

 An oxide that shows both acidic and basic properties is said to show
amphoteric properties. For example, aluminium oxide is amphoteric
because it can reacts with both acids and alkalis to form salt and
water.

 From the properties of the oxides elements of Period 3 in Table 4.22,

it can be said that:

(a)oxides elements on the left are basic.

(b) oxides elements on the right are acidic.

(c) when acrossing the period from left to right, the basic properties of
oxides on left change to acidic properties
Uses of Semi-metallic Elements

 Semi-metallic or metalloids are elements that show both metals and

non-metals properties.

 Examples of semi-metallic elements are silicon, Si and germanium, Ge

placed in Group 14

 Silicon and germanium are semi-metallic elements with weak

electrical conductivity. The electrical conductivity of silicon and
germanium can be increased by adding impurities such as boron or
phosphorus to increase its temperature. The increasing of the
temperature increases the electrical conductivity.

 The semi-metallic element that is mixed with these impurities is

known as semiconductor.
 Silicon and germanium have been widely used in the microelectronic
industry

 Semiconductors are used to make electronic components such as

diodes and transistors used in the manufacture of electronic
microchips.

 An electronic microchip is widely used in the installation of

computers, televisions, mobile phones, cameras and other
microelectronic equipments.
Transition Elements

Position of Transition Elements

 Transition elements are placed between Group 2 and Group 13 in the

Periodic Table

 Examples of transition elements are chromium, iron,manganese, zinc,

copper, silver, gold and mercury.
Special Characteristics for Several Transition Elements in the Periodic
Table of Elements

 The transition elements are also known as transition metals

 Since all transition elements are metals, they have the following
properties:

(a)Solid and shiny surfaces

(b) Ductile and malleable

(c) High melting point and boiling point

(d) High density

(e) Good conductor of electricity

(f) Good conductor of heat

 The transition elements also have the following special

characteristics:

(a)Form ions with more than one oxidation number

(b) Form coloured ions or compounds

(c) Form complex ions

(d) Act as a catalyst in certain reactions

Uses of Transition Elements in Industry

The transition elements are widely used in industries. Some examples of

the uses of transition elements are follows:

(a)As catalysts- The transition metals are used as catalysts in industries

in the making of ammonia (Haber Process), nitric acid(Ostwald
Process) and sulphuric acid (Contact Process).

(b)The manufacturing of alloys- The transition elements like iron are

mixed with metals such as aluminium and zinc to make a stronger,
hardeand corrosion-resistant alloy.

(c)The manufacturing of metal products-The transition metals such as

iron, copper and zinc are widely used in daily uses.

(d)The manufacturing of ornamental items- The addition of the

transition element compounds such as manganese to ornamental
items such as beads arglass can give an attractive colour to them.