Microwave Technology Advanced Baking

MICROWAVE
TECHNOLOGY
IN BAKING
PREPARED BY:
GROUP 8
AALYAH ZAIRA TULIAO
JESSEL DM. RUBIO
EDMAR MORALDE
Introduction
The 1950s through the early 1970s -

researchers in the field predicted great
things for industrial microwave heating and
looked upon home microwave heating as an
extravagance and a curiosity. But reality
proved just the opposite. By the early 1990s
there were about 150 million microwave
ovens in homes in North America, the
United Kingdom, Europe, Japan and
Australia, accounting for approximately
100,000 megawatts of output power.
Introduction
The concept of heating foods with microwaves

probably first occurred when it became
apparent that microwaves, in the form of
radar, would heat a person. That person, Percy
Spencer of Raytheon Corporation, quickly
tested the effect with a handful of popcorn
placed in a radar transmitting hom and this led
to the first patent for a microwave oven
(Spencer, 1952). Soon after that followed
invention, experimentation and patents on
microwave heating devices, for foods and
industrial applications. The 1960s and 1970s
were particularly active in the industrial
community as various discoveries led to the
development of conveyorized microwave
systems.
Introduction
Microwave baking of bread was first

reported by Fetty (1966). Other workers in
the US followed with some commercial
systems for proofing and frying of
doughnuts appearing in the late 1960s and
early 1970s (Schiffmann et al., 1971). At the
same time activities in the UK by
Chamberlain (1973) and others was focused
upon using microwaves to bake bread from
English wheat. Other early activities include
the pasteurization of bread described by
Cathcart (1946) and Olsen (1965), a process
which has become quite successful in
Europe in the last few years.
Process advantage of microwave systems
Heating with microwave energy is, in effect, bulk heating in which the
microwave field interacts with the material as a whole. The heating begins
immediately upon turning on the equipment and it can be very fast, although it is
often better not to be too fast. However, it is the speed of heating that is often
the major advantage and often it is possible to accomplish in seconds or minutes.
The advantages of microwave processing include the following (Goerz,
1970):
Process speed is increased. This is due to the direct coupling of energy
from the microwave field to the product without having to heat air, the walls of
an oven, etc.
Uniform heating may occur throughout the material. This is not always
true; however, the very large temperature gradients that normally occur in
conventional processes are usually avoided.
Efficiency of energy conversion. Nearly all of the microwave energy is
coupled into the material to be heated and is not expended in heating of the air,
conveyor, or other parts of the equipment, and this may lead to significant energy
savings.
Better and more rapid process controlling. Instanteous heat generation
and the variation of power offered by the microwave system means fast and
accurate control of the heating process.
Floor space requirements. These are usually less due to the rapid heating.
Selective heating may occur. The microwave energy couples into the
solvent but not the substrate.
Product quality may be improved. Since internal heating does not depend
upon high surface temperatures, it is possible to achieve more uniform heating
throughout the product and hence avoid the overheating and case hardening that
are common in conventional processes.
Desirable chemical and physical effects may result. Chemical and physical
reactions are promoted by heat generated by microwaves which may lead to
expansion, drying, protein denaturation, starch gelatinization, etc.
Microwave heating fundamentals

1. Electromagnetic waves
We live in an atmosphere filled with electromagnetic waves at all times.
Such things as light, TV, AM and FM radio waves, ultraviolet, infrared, and
microwaves are all manifestations of these waves. All bodies in the universe
above absolute zero in temperature radiate electromagnetic waves in various
portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic waves travel
through space at the speed of light in air.
1. Electromagnetic waves
A similar effect occurs in the strength of

the magnetic field. So we see a dramatic
flip-flopping of the waves' polarity and
its decay through zero, and it is this
effect in the space surrounding them
which causes the stress upon molecules
and ions which may be converted into
heat, and the greater the strength of the
wave and its associated field, the
greater will be the heating effect.
1. Heating mechanism
At any time, within most microwave heating equipment, be it home microwave

oven or large industrial processing system, the microwave applicator is filled with
microwaves often randomly oriented, but sometimes focused, in space and
approaching the material to be heated from all sides. It is important to recognize
that these waves in themselves do not represent heat but rather are forms of
energy which are only manifested as heat through their interaction with
materials. It is as if they cause materials to heat themselves. While there are
many mechanisms of energy conversion involving microwaves, there are only two
with which we are primarily interested. These are ionic induction and dipolar
rotation.
2. Ionic induction
Since ions are charged moieties they are accelerated by electric fields. As the
polarity changes the ions accelerate in the pposite direction. In doing so they
collide with unionized water molecules giving up kinetic energy and causing them
to accelerate and collide with other water molecules in a billiard ball fashion.
Because of the extremely high frequency with which this occurs, there are large
numbers of collisions and hence a great deal of energy is transferred. There is, in
effect, a two-step energy conversion: electric field energy is converted to induced
ordered kinetic energy, which in tum is converted to disordered kinetic energy, at
which point it may be regarded as heat (White, 1973).
If a molecule has a full, formal charge, then the changing electric field will cause it
to move back and forth through the solvent, which again generates friction and
heat (orgchemboulder,2018)
3. Dipolar Rotation
Since ions are charged moieties they are accelerated by electric fields. As the
polarity changes the ions accelerate in the pposite direction. In doing so they
collide with unionized water molecules giving up kinetic energy and causing them
to accelerate and collide with other water molecules in a billiard ball fashion.
Because of the extremely high frequency with which this occurs, there are large
numbers of collisions and hence a great deal of energy is transferred. There is, in
effect, a two-step energy conversion: electric field energy is converted to induced
ordered kinetic energy, which in tum is converted to disordered kinetic energy, at
which point it may be regarded as heat (White, 1973).
If a molecule has a full, formal charge, then the changing electric field will cause it
to move back and forth through the solvent, which again generates friction and
heat (orgchemboulder,2018)
4. Interaction of microwave fields with materials
Materials may be divided into four categories depending upon how they interact
with microwave fields:
5. Conductors. These are materials with free electrons,
such as metals, which will reflect microwaves just
as light is reflected by a mirror. It is these materials
which are used to contain and direct the microwaves
in the form of applicators and waveguides.
2. Insulators. These are electrically non-conductive materials, glass,
paper, plastics and air. Primarily transparent to microwaves,
they are useful tosupport and contain materials to be heated by the
microwaves and may take the form of conveyor belts, support trays,
packages, dishes, etc. We consider these materials to be 'non-lossy dielectrics'.
3. Dielectrics. These are materials whose
properties range from conductors to
insulators and as a group are referred to
as 'lossy dielectrics' as these materials will
absorb microwave radiation and convert it
into heat. Examples of lossy dielectrics are
water, oils, syrups, dough, batter and other food
materials containing large amounts of moisture.
4. Magnetic compounds. These are materials such as ferrites

which interact with the magnetic component of the
electromagnetic wave and as such will heat. Their primary
use in industrial microwave heating is in shielding or choking
devices that prevent leakage of microwave energy.
Sometimes they are used for heating in special devices such
as pizza trays and browning
dishes.
The ability of materials to be heated by microwave energy are affected by
various factors as described below:
A. Moisture content. Since the amount of free moisture in a

substance greatly affects its dielectric constant, materials of higher
moisture content usually have higher dielectric constants.
B. Density. The dielectric constant of air is 1, so for all practical

purposes it is transparent to microwaves. This is especially important
in baking since, as the dough expands and gas cells form, the dough
becomes more and more transparent to the microwave energy
allowing it to reach deeper and deeper into the dough
piece.
C. Temperature. Dielectric constants may increase or decrease with temperature

depending upon the material. Since most food materials contain large amounts of
water and heating is largely dependent upon the water content, as they become
hot, the constants tend to plateau or decrease slightly, and therefore the heating
rate will slow down. However, some foods containing large amounts of salt, such
as ham, will show an increasing dielectric loss factor with temperature. Therefore,
the hotter they become, the greater their rate of heating, which can lead to
runaway heating effects.
D. Frequency. Dielectric properties are affected by frequency of the applied
microwave field. Since there are only two allowed industrial frequencies, the
product developer is limited in choice. The lower frequency, 915 MHz, is often the
frequency of choice in industrial processing because it will exhibit a greater depth
of penetration as well as lower capital cost for the equipment.
E. Conductivity. This refers to the ability of the material to conduct electric

current by the displacement of electrons and ions as already described in detail.
The presence of ions in a food not only affects the heating rate, but also the depth
of penetration.
F. Thermal conductivity. This often plays a lesser role in microwave heating than
in conventional heating because of the great speed with which the former heats,
thus reducing the time during which thermal conductivity can be effective. How
ever, if the material being heated is large in volume by comparison to the depth of
penetration, thermal conductivity must be depended upon to transfer the heat to the
interior since microwaves will not penetrate that far.
G. Heat capacity (specific heat). This parameter is often neglected by the product
development scientist or engineer dealing with microwaves. However, it may be
an overriding parameter causing materials to heat much faster than one would
predict from their dielectric properties alone.
H. Penetration depth. It is of utmost importance in affecting both the temperature profile and the
rate of heating that is permissible. Since microwave heating is, in effect, bulk heating, it
is important that the energy penetrate as deeply as possible, or it will be limited to
heating only near the surface. On the other hand, it is possible for the energy to
concentrate in the center of the food and cause excess heating, drying, rupture and
burning.
Equipment for microwave processing
1. The power supply and generator
The basic function of the generator is to convert the

alternating current of 50 or 60 Hz and 120 to 480 V into the
higher frequencies and voltages (4000 V or more) desired. In
microwave systems this is generally done by means of a d.c.
power supply and a tube - either a magnetron or klystron.
These tubes are of constant power output and the power to
the load may be controlled by sensing the load requirements
and controlling the output power accordingly, usually by
indirectly varying the d.c. anode voltage.
2. Control systems
Since the output power of the microwave system is governed by electrical energy,
control systems may be designed utilizing feedback loops, which will monitor some
function of the food load such as moisture or temperature and automatically control
the output power of the generator to give better and faster control of the product.
3. Economics of microwave processing systems

Microwave heating can be quite expensive both in equipment and operating cost.
For this reason the decision to use microwaves as part of the process should only
be done with an examination of the overall costs and the return on investment.
Rarely do speed savings alone provide the economic incentive to utilize micro
waves. Instead, this would need to be coupled with such things as increased
throughput, lower manufacturing cost, improved product quality, increased yield,
or other meaningful factors (Jolly, 1973, 1976).
The capital cost of microwave systems are in the order of $5000 (US) or more
per installed kilowatt (kW), which would include conveyors, control systems,
etc. Thus, a baking oven requiring 100 kW of microwave energy would cost
upwards of $500 000 (US).
Microwave systems for industrial processing in the baking industry
As described earlier, microwaves may be used for various processes within the
baking industry including baking, pasteurizing, defrosting, proofing and frying of
such products as doughnuts. All of these have been investigated and some have
led to successful industrial applications. The following discussion highlights both
experimental and commercial systems and also provides an historical
of these situations.
What makes microwave especially interesting in bakery applications is that
most of them involve a wet batter or dough which must be made to expand under
the influence of heat. As this occurs the product becomes a better and better heat
insulator slowing the penetration of heat. For microwaves, however, this mass
becomes more and more transparent and they penetrate and heat more deeply
and rapidly. Combinations of microwaves and hot air or microwaves alone are
suitable for many baking operations.
Microwave systems for industrial processing in the baking
industry
microwaves may be used for various processes within the

baking industry including baking, pasteurizing, defrosting, proofing and frying of
such products as doughnuts. All of these have been investigated and some have led
to successful industrial applications. The following discussion highlights both
experimental and commercial systems and also provides an historical
of these situations.
industry
I. BAKING
A. Bread
- Bread baking by means of microwave energy was first reported in
the literature by Fetty (1966). The process was studied at Litton Industries and was
referred to as microwave-proof baking since it involved both proofmg the dough.
-
industry
I. BAKING
A. Bread
- In 1967, Decareau noted the possibility of combining microwave
energy and hot air to produce typically brown and crusted loaves of bread in a
shorter time than by conventional baking methods.
B. Brown and serve products.
- Decareau (1967) indicates the potential for microwave
baking of brown and serve products. A patent by Schiffmann et al. (1979) also
describes a procedure for brown and serve baking utilizing microwave energy. The
advantage of all of these systems would be to allow the baking of the product in
the container in which the product may be finished baked in the home, and which
industry
I. BAKING
C. Cake Baking
- Although numerous studies have been done on the baking
of cakes in microwave ovens, both with and without auxiliary heat. The economic
advantage for such a system may not be attractive enough. What would perhaps be
of commercial interest would be specialty cakes baked within their serving
containers to be either heated later in home microwave or conventional ovens; or
would be of a unique form, with proper toppings and fillings, to be eaten directly
from the container.
industry
I. BAKING
D. Doughnut Processing
- One microwave baking process which was quite
successful for some time was the microwave frying of doughnuts (Schiffmann et
al., 1971). During the frying of doughnuts, the dough rapidly expands,
forming an open celled structure with an ablative crust on its surface thereby
restricting heat transfer from the hot fat to the interior of the doughnut. These
fryers were successful for quite some time during the early 1970s; however, after
several years, they disappeared from the scene. The reasons are quite complex and
have little or nothing to do with their performance or the quality of the doughnuts.
industry
I. BAKING
E. Proofing
- A highly successful proofing procedure was developed by DCA
Food Industries (Schiffinannet a!., 1971 ). This process replaced the usual, slow,
inefficient conventional proofers with a straight line microwave conveyor, which
reduced the total proofing time from 45-4 min. Unique advantages of this proofing
system were the excellent process control, uniformity of proofing, and sanitation of
the proofing system, and were matched by excellent product quality, all of which had
never been achieved by conventional means. Today, none of these proofers remain,
although, once again, this has nothing to do with the performance of the equipment,
or the quality of the finished product.
industry
I. BAKING
E. Pasteurization
Microbial reduction by microwaves, that is pasteurization and
sterilization, has been studied in large number of food products including baked
products. Actual commercial adoption of microwave pasteurization of bread occurred
in the mid to late 1980s in Europe. Today numerous installations are available,
especially in Germany, for the pasteurization of both specialty and white breads with
the shelf-life extension of2 to 3 months. There are currently perhaps 100 or more
microwave bread pasteurizing systems in operation in Germany due to the changing
food additive laws in the EC countries which makes it necessary to stop using
preservatives.
-
industry
I. BAKING
F. Thawing
Thawing is not a popular microwave industrial process, whereas
tempering is. Tempering is the raising of the internal temperature of the frozen
product, such as meat or fish, to just below the thaw point, at which point it may be
further processed. Mayhall (1969) indicated that the use of microwave
energy for thawing bread and dough showed promise. The microwave-thawed
bread was judged less stale by a panel, and bread baked from a microwave-thawed
dough was judged to be of excellent quality.
industry
II. Radio Frequency (FR) baking
In the baking industry, RF equipment is used

primarily for the finished drying
Of biscuits, cookies and crackers. Many
such systems have been described (Jones,
1987; Hulls, 1989; Holland, 1966). This finished
drying is particularly successful since the RF field,
similarly to the microwave field, has the ability to
pump water actively from the interior of
a material without over-heating the surface and
thereby evaporates moisture without case-hardening
the surface which would otherwise cause checking and
industry
III. Microwave Ovens
In the last decade that it has achieved saturation

levels of 50% and higher in homes in many
Countries including USA, UK, Canada, Japan,
Australia, Sweden, etc. Food service and
catering use of this appliance is also very high.
This has led to the development of numerous
microwavable prepared products for both markets, and baked products
are well represented. This includes frozen, chilled or refrigerated, and room
temperature products. Some are finished products such as buns and muffins which
only need warming, or perhaps defrosting followed by warming. There are some
products, such as cakes and cupcakes, which are in dry mix form and require actual
industry
A. Characteristics of Microwave Ovens

Home microwave ovens have some
major performance differences from industrial
systems beyond the obvious differences in size.
All operate at a frequency of 2450 MHz.
industry
B. Power Output
Usually the output power of a microwave
oven is in hundreds of watts and is a fixed power
output, while industrial systems are tens or
hundreds of kilowatts in output and this output
can be continuously and evenly
variable.
industry
C. Ambient Temperature
The air in a microwave oven remains cool during

microwaving unless the oven has some form of
auxiliary heating by means of forced hot air or
infrared heating. This cool condition makes it
difficult to achieve the high surface temperatures
required for browning and crisping.
industry
D. Products to be baked
As described above, such products as cakes,

cupcakes and muffins are available which are baked in the microwave oven. These
are usually dry mix products to which the consumer may add water, shortening and
eggs. They are usually supplied with a plastic or paperboard baking pan. Often
toppings, such as icing or streusel, are also supplied. There are also some frozen
batter products, such as muffins, which are microwave baked from the frozen state.
industry
E. Reheating baked products
Numerous products such as hamburgers and

sandwiches, bread, pizza and pastries are stored
in the frozen condition and then defrosted and
warmed in a single microwave step. These products
may also be refrigerated. The products are usually
heated in some form of overwrap -paper or
plastic - to reduce moisture loss and provide more
uniform heating.
industry
F. Browning and Crisping
One of the most peculiar things encountered in microwave ovens is the lack of
browning and crisping of the surface of food products. Both of these require high
surface temperature, which is difficult to achieve in the microwave-only oven.
Further, browning requires extended heating time.
industry
VI. The future of microwave baking in industry

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MICROWAVE

The 1950s through the early 1970s -

The concept of heating foods with microwaves

Microwave baking of bread was first

Microwave heating fundamentals

A similar effect occurs in the strength of

At any time, within most microwave heating equipment, be it home microwave

4. Magnetic compounds. These are materials such as ferrites

A. Moisture content. Since the amount of free moisture in a

B. Density. The dielectric constant of air is 1, so for all practical

C. Temperature. Dielectric constants may increase or decrease with temperature

E. Conductivity. This refers to the ability of the material to conduct electric

The basic function of the generator is to convert the

3. Economics of microwave processing systems

microwaves may be used for various processes within the

In the baking industry, RF equipment is used

In the last decade that it has achieved saturation

A. Characteristics of Microwave Ovens

The air in a microwave oven remains cool during

As described above, such products as cakes,

E. Reheating baked products

Numerous products such as hamburgers and

F. Browning and Crisping

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