New Method For Material Development

Household Resource Management
Chapter 3: The Management Process
By: Adonia D.
1
Session objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to
 Explain the terms ‘concept of ‘management’;
 Describe ways of maximizing satisfaction from the use of
resources;
 Explain the significance of management in day-to-day life;
 Enumerate the steps involved in the management process;
 Identify the motivating factors in management;
2
Introduction to management process
Defining management
 Management is defined as a broad area of responsibility composed
of many activities aimed at achieving a predetermined objective.

 Management is very wide concept which encompasses many
subject matter.
 Management in businesses and organizations is the function that
coordinates the efforts of people to accomplish goals and

objectives by using available resources efficiently and effectively.
effectively
3
Introduction to management process...cont
o Management is a universal process in all organized social and
economic activities.
 It is an operative force in all complex organizations trying to
achieve some stated objectives.
 Is necessary for the activity of household, government

enterprises, education and health services, military
organizations, trade associations and so on.
o The universality of management states that managers perform
the same functions regardless of their place in the organizational

structure or the type of enterprise in which they are managing.
4
Introduction to management process...cont
o Managerial activities are common to all managers, but the practices
and methods must be adapted to the particular tasks, enterprises, and

situations.
o In general, it is the process of utilizing organizational
resources (human, financial, physical and etc.) To achieve

specific organizational objectives.
5
Significance of Management
o Management plays a significant role in our day-to-day
life.
o Management helps to:-
≈ reach your goals,
≈ achieve what you want,
≈ avoid wastage of resources,
≈ make your life more systematic,
≈ achieve a better standard of life,
≈ increase efficiency in work situations,
6
Steps in the Management Process
o We have to achieve a large number of goals and satisfy our
wants.
o To achieve our goals with limited resources, we have to
follow a systematic method/step.

o Systematic method/steps in management are :-
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Controlling
7 4. Evaluating
Steps in the Management Process….cont
8
9
Organizing:- is the process of developing a structure

among people, functions, and physical facilities to
execute the plans and achieve stated objectives.
 Organizing involves assembling resources and fixing
responsibilities.
 During fixing responsibilities consider:

 If individual have the time and ability to do that work and are willing
to do the same.
10
3. Controlling:- is carrying out the activities as planned and
organized earlier.
 Controlling is also known as putting a plan into action.
 As the plan is being carried out, you also have to check the
progress of your plan. Or you change or control your activities

so that your plan is not a failure which is known as flexibility
controlling is done while the plan is in action and its
purpose is to make adjustment in the plan.
11
4. Evaluating:- is the process of checking to see whether
everything went according to your plan or not.

 It means looking back to find out what has been
achieved.
 It consists of looking back over the steps of planning and
controlling to know how good or how poor the job has been
done.
 The success or failure of the plan must be evaluated on the basis of

12
the set goals.
Advantages of Evaluation :
 It helps us to assess what has been done and how
effective the process was in relation to the goals

achieved.
 It tells us whether the plan was good or not
 It helps to know how effectively the limited resources
have been used for achievement of family goals.

 it serves as a basis for future planning.
13
Managerial Skills
 Household manager needs different combinations of skills
to manage household successfully.

 It is widely believed that all managers must possess three
types of skills such as technical, interpersonal, and

conceptual if they are to be effective and efficient.
efficient
1. Technical Skills
 the abilities and knowledge needed to perform particular tasks.
 These are skills required to complete When consulting
with one member of the household about their child

14
management, a he/she relies on his/her technical skills.
Managerial Skills …cont
2. Interpersonal Skills
 the behaviors and tactics a person uses to interact with others
effectively
 Are the abilities needed to work successfully with other
member of the family.

 He/she must be able to understand and respond to others
concerns and needs.

 They must motivate and encourage each other and be able to
15
deal with diversity in the family.
Managerial Skills …cont
3. Conceptual Skills
 At the highest levels, managers focus on an entire company
rather than a single unit and thus they need conceptual skills:
 those that involve the ability to think in abstract terms to
simplify complex situations and determine a course of action.
 Conceptual skills are also necessary to determine household
mission and to communicate clearly how that mission will be

accomplished.
16
Motivating factors in management
 There are three motivating factors for management.
1. Values 2. Standards 3. Goals

A. Value
 A value is a moral principle and/or belief that a person holds about
some aspect of life.
 importance or worth that is given to any object, situation,
principle or idea.
 E.g. honesty, punctuality, kindness, sincerity, health, good habits,
happiness, etc.
 The things in life that one considers right, desirable or worth

17 while
Value...
It motivates you to behave in a particular way.
E.g. you value health that is why you tend to eat
right food and also do regular exercise.
They provide a base for judgement, discrimination

and analysis.
 Due to these, we are able to make intelligent choice
between different alternatives.
18
Motivating factors in management...cont
B. Standards
 Standard is an accepted level of quality.
 Hence it is a measure of values that compel individuals to

perform actions that will give the desired satisfaction.
 Whenever we do any work, we measure our
performance against a standard.

 For example when we clean a room we see that
everything is back in its place, it is dusted and polished;
floor is swept and mopped and so on.
19
Type of Family Standard
 Moral standard: the acceptable level of good characters
in a family. Like speech, dressing, honest etc.

 Social standard: the level of social behavior expected of
the family members. like., love, respect, self-control.

 Religious standard: the acceptable level of involvement
of the family members in religious activities,

 attendance to place of worship, showing love of God & of neighbor,
act of charity.
20
Type of Family Standard…
 Nutritional and Feeding standard:
 Feeding and nutritional level of the family may not be expected to
drop to a certain level if they are to maintain good health.
 Educational standard:
 every family member must hold a university degree
 Cleanliness standard: the acceptable level of
cleanliness(members of the family, for the house, car they

drive).
 Clothing standard: dressing expensive clothes, faded second-
21 hand clothes.
Motivating factors in management...cont
C. Goals
 A goal is the aim of accomplishing something in someone’s
life. (E.g. your goal is to gain BSc in AHuN)

 Thus goals grow out of our values, needs and desire
 It is something that one wishes to reach or accomplish within a
timeframe determined by the individual.

 We expect that by these goals, we get a sense of achievement,
happiness and satisfaction.
22
Classification of goal by no. of individual
 Individual goals :
 are decided by an individual.
 Individual should to work hard to achieve his/her goals.
E.G. Getting good grad
 Group goals : Number of individuals are involved
 every group member works hard for the achievement
 The role of group leader becomes important in
motivating each group member;

 E.G. arranging picnic, celebrating college day
23
Classification of goal …by duration
 Short-term goals: goals that will be achieved in the near
future
 Intermediate goals: link short-term and long-term goals.
 duration could be in months or years
 Long-range goals: goals that usually require more than 1
year to complete
 are more complex
 Require many activities and lot of resources.
 It can also include more than one or more goals.

24
 E.g. ; building a house, getting married etc.
Value(health)------Goal(maintaining good health)---
standards(set standards of food and exercise )
25
26
Household Resource Management (RuDv
2121)
Chapter 4:HOUSEHOLD DECISION-MAKING
BY: Adonial D.
27
Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
Define decision making
Identify the role and scope of decision making,
Discuss the classification of decision making,
List decision styles ,
Discuss the decision making process
28
Household decision-making
 In home management decision making is a very important
part of our day to day life.

 Every day a person faces various situations/problems.
 To solve these problems a person has to take various decisions.
 Some decisions are long term which turns the life.
 For example, marriage, career, buying a house etc.
 All these decisions are important and can have a great effect
on a person’s life.
29
Household decision-making …..Cont
Household decision making is a powerful means of arriving at
an integrated decision that takes into account the needs of

individual members, and one that each accepts as the best, and in
which each member is influenced by facts, information and
feelings of others.
o Group solutions tend to be better than individual solutions.
Decisions are based on more information, more alternative
solution are examined - the more alternatives, the better the

chances of the best solutions.
o The more members participate, the more they will see the solutions as
30
their own and the more they will co apprehend the decisions made.
Household decision-making
 Household decision-making affects many choices with

important consequences like the distribution of income, allocation
of resources, the allocation of time, purchase of goods, and
fertility decisions.
 If there is gender inequality in household decision making then
this affects the economic well being of women and children in

the household.
31
Concept of decision making
Decision making is the process of identifying and choosing
alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision

maker.
Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to be
considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as

many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that
(1) has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and
(2) best fits with our goals, desires and so on.
32
Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing
uncertainty and doubt about alternatives to allow a reasonable

choice to be made from among them.
It should be noted here that uncertainty is reduced rather than
eliminated.
Very few decisions are made with absolute certainty because
complete knowledge about all the alternatives is seldom

possible.
Thus, every decision involves a certain amount of risk.
33  If there is no uncertainty, you do not have a decision;
o Considering different alternatives is important because to
be
 sure following the right course of action and
 choose option which could save your money, time, energy, or
social/emotional problems.
Hence, it is vital to learn how to make correct
decisions while solving a problem or reaching a

target or tackling a situation.
34
o A decision is selection of a course of action among alternative
choices.
o E.g. On a rainy day you want to reach your office on time but do not
want to use your bicycle.
o What are your options? …..you can take a bus, go walking, take a
taxi or ask your friend for a lift in her car.
o You have to decide which option to use so that you reach office on
time.
o Decision making can be regarded as the cognitive process resulting in
the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios.

o Every decision making process produces a final choice.
o It might be regarded as a problem solving activity which is terminated
when a satisfactory solution is reached.

35
o Logical decision making is an important part of all science-based
professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in a given

area to making informed decisions.
o For example, medical decision making often involves
making a diagnosis and selecting an appropriate treatment.
o A major part of decision making involves the analysis of a
finite set of alternatives described in terms of evaluative
criteria.
36
Decision making systems
A. Closed decision making system:
o If the manager operates in a known environment then it is a closed
decision making system.

o The conditions of the closed decision making system are:
a) The manager has a known set of decision alternatives and knows

their outcomes fully in terms of value, if implemented.
b) The manager has a model, a method or a rule whereby the
decision alternatives can be generated, tested, and ranked.
c) The manager can choose one of them, based on some goal or
37 objective.
B. Open decision making system:
o If the manager operates in an environment not known to him, then
the decision making system is termed as an open decision making

system.
o The conditions of this system are:
a) The manager does not know all the decision alternatives.

b) The outcome of the decision is also not known fully.
c) No method, rule or model is available to study and finalize one decision
among the set of decision alternatives.
d) It is difficult to decide an objective or a goal and, therefore, the manager
resorts to that decision, where his aspirations or desires are met best.
38
Decision-making types
 Irreversible:
• These decisions are permanent, once taken, they can't be
undone.
• The effects of these decisions are far-reaching and are taken
only when all other options have been exhausted.
 Reversible:
Reversible decisions are not final and binding, they can be
retracted at any point, and another more fitting decision made.

39
 Delayed :
 Such decisions are put on hold until the decision maker thinks that
the right time has come.

 This delay might cause one to miss certain opportunities especially
in the case of businesses and may lead to losses.

 Quick Decisions:
 These decisions enable one to make maximum use of the
opportunity available at hand.

 In order to be able to take the right decision within a short span of
time, one should also take the long-term results into consideration.
40
Experimental:
• One of the ways of decision-making is the experimental type, where the
final decision cannot be taken until the preliminary results appear and
are positive.
• Experimental decisions are common in fields such as medicine,
where the product being tested goes through several phases.
Trial and Error:
• This approach involves trying out a certain course of action.
• If the result is positive it is followed further, if not, a fresh course
is adopted.
41
Decision making styles
 Democratic decision making:
 Is when the leader gives up ownership and control of a decision and
allows the group to vote.

 Majority vote will decide the action.
 An individual is not responsible for the outcome.
 Lack of group and personal responsibility seems to disqualify this
style of decision making.

 Advantages include a fairly fast decision, and a certain amount of
group participation.
42
 Autocratic decision making:
• Is when the leader maintains total control and ownership of the
decision.
• The leader is also completely responsible for the good or bad
outcome as a result of the decision.

• The leader does not ask for any suggestions or ideas from
outside sources and decides from his or her own internal

information and perception of the situation.
• Advantages include a very fast decision, and personal
responsibility by the leader, for the outcome.
43
 Collective/Participative decision making
o Is when the leader involves the members of the organization.
o The leader deliberately asks and encourages others to participate by
giving their ideas, perceptions, knowledge, and information

concerning the decision.
o The leader maintains total control of the decision because, although
outside information is considered, the leader alone decides.

o The leader is also completely responsible for the good or bad
outcome as a result of the decision.

o The advantages include some group participation and involvement.
44
 Consensus decision making:
• when the leader gives up total control of the decision.
• The complete group is totally involved in the decision.
• The leader is not individually responsible for the outcome.
• The complete organization or group is now responsible for the
outcome.
• This is not a democratic style because everyone must agree on
the decision.
• The advantages include group commitment and responsibility
for the outcome.

45
Decision making process
The six steps of decision-making process are:
1. Step 1-Define the problem

2. Step 2-Identify available alternative solutions to the
problem
3. Step 3- Evaluate the identified alternatives
4. Step 4-Make the decision
5. Step 5-Implement the decision
6. Step 6-Evaluate the decision
46
Step 1: Define the problem
 The most significant step in any decision making process is
describing why a decision is called for and identifying the

most desired outcome(s) of the decision making process.
 One way of deciding if a problem exists is to couch the
problem in terms of what one wanted or expected and the

actual situation.
 In this way a problem is defined as the difference between
expected and/or desired outcomes and actual outcomes.

47
Step 2: Identify available alternative solutions to the problem
 The key to this step is to not limit yourself to obvious
alternatives or what has worked in the past but to be open to new

and better alternatives.
Step 3: Evaluate the identified alternatives

 As you evaluate each alternative, you should be looking at the likely
positive and negative cones for each.

 As you consider positive and negative cones you must be careful to
differentiate between what you know for a fact and what you believe
might be the case.
48
Step 4: Make the decision
 When the decision maker is working in a team environment, this is
where a proposal is made to the team, complete with a clear

definition of the problem, a clear list of the alternatives that were
considered and a clear rationale for the proposed solution.
Step 5: Implement the decision

 While this might seem obvious, it is necessary to make the point that
deciding on the best alternative is not the same as doing something.

 It is not enough to think about it or talk about it or even decide to do
it.
49
A decision only counts when it is implemented.
Step 6: Evaluate the decision
 The final test of any decision is whether or not the
problem was fixed.

o Did it go away?
o Did it change appreciably?

o Is it better now, or worse, or the same?
o What new problems did the solution create?
50
Household Resource Management (RuDv
2121)
Chapter 5: INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY MANAGEMENT
BY: Adonia D.
51
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Define family
Mention and explain examples of traditional and
modern/postmodern family structures
List the characteristics of traditional and modern/postmodern
family structures
Describe types of family on the basis of marriage, residence,
descent and nature of relation
Discuss factors responsible for changes in family structure
Examine impact of changes in family structure
Explain the major functions of a family
Identify and explain the different factors affecting family
management
52
The concept and types of family
 The family is a concept that is familiar to all of us in some form or
another.
 What we think of as a family can vary enormously in terms of co-
residence, economic relations, roles and responsibilities, sexual

orientation and reproduction; the family is clearly a dynamic social
phenomenon – one that varies historically, geographically and culturally.
 The family plays a central role in the life of an individual and the society
at large.
 It is the first training institution where a child learns about basic issues of life
such as values, human and social relations, communication and other basic
skills that will be required for relating with the larger society.
53
The concept and types of family……cont
 Therefore, the experiences that a child has at the family
level-whether positive or negative may affect the child’s

personal development throughout life.
 For example, a child who grows in a family full of strife and
violence may find it difficult to show true love and care, except
he/she encounters other experiences outside the family that
provide learning about love and happy family life.
 Family patterns are likely to influence a child’s ability to
trust others, express love or anger appropriately, being

54 successful at school and so on and so forth.
Definitions of the Family
 Many experts have had difficulty defining what a family is;
this is because of the complex nature of the concept.

 The word ‘family’ means different things to different people.
 Therefore, it may not be easy to suggest a standard definition for
the concept.
 Several definitions of the family have been propounded to
reflect some of these changes.

 While some of these definitions are conservative, others are
regarded as too broad and sometimes, almost unacceptable.

55
Definitions of the Family……cont
 Family is defined in J. Ross Elshleman , as a social group, a
social system, and a social institution.

 According to Murdock (1949), “a family is a social group
characterized by common residence, economic cooperation

and reproduction.
 It contains adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children,

owned or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults.”
 Thus the family lives together, pools its resources and works
56
together, and produces offspring.
Definitions of the Family……cont
 Burgess and Lock (2006) define family as
 “a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption
constituting a single household interacting with each other in

their respective social role of husband and wife, mother and
father, brother and sister creating a common culture”.
 Carrington (1999) defines family as consisting of people who love
and care for one another”.

 Therefore, in simple terms, the family can be regarded as a group
of people (two or more) usually related by blood (and sometimes

not related, perhaps by adoption) living together wherein the
57 adults care for the young.
Types of Family
 Family can be classified in many basis.
1. Types of Family on the Basis of Marriage:
a. Monogamous Family
 Monogamous family is made up one man and a woman.
 This is one of the most known types of family in the world.
b. Polygamous Family
 This consists of a man, his wives and their children.
c. Polyandrous Family
 In w/c, a woman is allowed to marry more than one man at a time.
58
Types of Family ……cont
2. Types of Family on the Basis of Residence
a. Family of Patrilocal Residence
 the couple to live with or near the husband’s parents.
b. Family of Matrilocal Residence

 the couple is expected to live with or near the wife’s parents.
c. Family of Bilocal Residence

 newly married couple is allowed to chose whether they will live with or
near the husband or wife’s parents.
d. Family of Neolocal Residence

 The newly married couple is free to set up their residence apart from both
59
parents.
3. Types of Family on the Basis of Ancestry or Descent
a. Matrilineal Family
In this set-up, property is passed from mother to daughter.
Common in some Ghanaian communities.
b. Patrilineal Family
In some societies, kinship is traced through the father’s family.
In this type of family, property is passed from father to son.
c. Family of Bilateral Descent

In this case, kinship is traced through both parents and property
60 can be inherited from both sides of the family.

4. On the Basis of Nature of Relations:
a. The Conjugal Family
This type of family consists of adult who share sexual
relationship.
b. Consanguine Family
This type of family consists of members with blood relationship
such as brother and sister, father and son, etc.
61
5. On the Basis of Size or Structure
a. Nuclear or Single Unit Family

 The term ‘nuclear family’ refers to a household consisting of a
father, mother and their children.
b. The Extended Family

 The extended family is made up of three of more generations of
a family sharing the same residence.

 It is a nuclear family plus other relatives, such as grandparents,
uncles and aunts, who live together

62
Types of Family …cont
6. On the bases of authority
a. Patriarchal family
 The family in which father is the normal head and the ruling power in
the family is said to be patriarchal family. The authority of the father is

taken as absolute and final.
 Women and children are expected to follow the decisions and dictates
of the male members of the family.
b. Matriarchal family
 The family in which the mother is the central figure and her authority is
supreme.
63  In such families the mother wields power and authority in the house.
Changing Family Structure
Traditional Family Structures
 In all societies, the family remains the basic social unit.
 The form that the family takes however varies from society to
society.
 The family has changed in formation and structure over
several decades.
 Many experts have tried to describe types of family
formations to reflect past and current trends.

64
Changing Family Structure….cont
 The traditional family structure has a father as the sole
breadwinner and the mother as the stay-at-home caretaker of

the children.
 Characteristics of the traditional family structure are:
 Most marriages were arranged by parents, and extended family members.
 Sexual freedom of men and women was restricted.
 Polygamy was allowed.
Assignments : Discuss about the type’s traditional families.
65
Changing Family Structure….cont
Modern/Post Modern Family Structures
 As with every other aspect of life, industrialization and
globalization has also influenced in family formations and

structures.
 This has led to the formation of different family structures, which
hardly exist in the past.

 Assignments : Discuss about the type’s Modern/Post Modern
Family Structures
 Assignments : Discuss about the type’s families other than
66 traditional families and Modern/Post Modern Family Structures

Family Life Cycle Stages
 The family life cycle has been defined as a series of stages
through which most families’ progress, with varying

characteristics across varies stages.
 These characteristics relate to marital status, size of the
family, the age profile of the family members (focusing on

the age of the oldest and/or youngest child), the employment
status of the head of household, the income level and the
disposable income at hand.
67
Family Life Cycle Stages
Traditionally the life cycle illustrate a series of stages through
which families passed.
 It comprised 5 stages starting from bachelorhood to dissolution
 It comprised 5 stages, starting from bachelorhood (single)
married (couple) family growth(parenthood: birth of children),

family contraction (grown up children leaving home for studies
or employment) post parenthood (all children leaving home)
dissolution (single survivor: death of one of the spouses).
68
Functions of Family
 Family performs a number of functions in a given society.
 An individual and any family at large are dependent on the family
for the fulfillment of their needs.

 If these needs of the individual and the society are not properly
met the survival of both the individual and the society will be at
risk.
 Some of the major functions of a family are :-
 Reproduction, socialization, economic support, economic

security and regulation of sexual activity
69
Functions of Family......cont
a. Reproduction
 This is essential to replace members of the society who have died or moved
to another location.
b. Socialization
 The family is the first place a child learns how to socialize. Families also
teach children gender and social roles such socially accepted behavior
(societal values, beliefs, attitudes, knowledge and skills) and behavior
society hates.
c. Economic support
 This is an important role performed by the family. The family provides shelter,
food, protection, health, education and other basic requirements of children.
70
Functions of Family......cont
d. Emotional security
o The family provides the child’s first experience in social
interaction, which is intimate, nurturing and enduring thus,

providing emotional security for the child.
e. Regulation of sexual activity
o One of the functions that the family performs is
regulation of sexual activity.
• Every society regulates sexual activity in one way or the
other.
• In most cultures, close relatives in a family are prohibited
from engaging in sexual activities with each other.
• When this occurs, there are sanctions or punishment
71 meted out on the offenders.
Factors affecting family management
A. The number of dependents affected by the caring relationship
• When a new baby enters the family there may be jealousy felt by
siblings
• The sibling has to learn how to share their time and house and this
influences family resource management
B. Age
• Age determines family resource management.
• Skills & capabilities will usually depend on the age of the dependant.
c. Resources like time, energy and money

d. Access to Services
72

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Household Resource Management

Chapter 3: The Management Process

 Describe ways of maximizing satisfaction from the use of

 Enumerate the steps involved in the management process;

 Identify the motivating factors in management;

of many activities aimed at achieving a predetermined objective.

coordinates the efforts of people to accomplish goals and

 Is necessary for the activity of household, government

o The universality of management states that managers perform

the same functions regardless of their place in the organizational

o Managerial activities are common to all managers, but the practices

and methods must be adapted to the particular tasks, enterprises, and

o In general, it is the process of utilizing organizational

resources (human, financial, physical and etc.) To achieve

follow a systematic method/step.

Organizing:- is the process of developing a structure

 During fixing responsibilities consider:

progress of your plan. Or you change or control your activities

controlling is done while the plan is in action and its

purpose is to make adjustment in the plan.

4. Evaluating:- is the process of checking to see whether

everything went according to your plan or not.

 The success or failure of the plan must be evaluated on the basis of

 It helps us to assess what has been done and how

effective the process was in relation to the goals

 It helps to know how effectively the limited resources

have been used for achievement of family goals.

to manage household successfully.

types of skills such as technical, interpersonal, and

 These are skills required to complete When consulting

with one member of the household about their child

 Are the abilities needed to work successfully with other

member of the family.

concerns and needs.

 Conceptual skills are also necessary to determine household

mission and to communicate clearly how that mission will be

1. Values 2. Standards 3. Goals

 The things in life that one considers right, desirable or worth

They provide a base for judgement, discrimination

 Standard is an accepted level of quality.

 Hence it is a measure of values that compel individuals to

 Whenever we do any work, we measure our

performance against a standard.

 Moral standard: the acceptable level of good characters

in a family. Like speech, dressing, honest etc.

the family members. like., love, respect, self-control.

of the family members in religious activities,

 Feeding and nutritional level of the family may not be expected to

drop to a certain level if they are to maintain good health.

 every family member must hold a university degree

 Cleanliness standard: the acceptable level of

cleanliness(members of the family, for the house, car they

life. (E.g. your goal is to gain BSc in AHuN)

 It is something that one wishes to reach or accomplish within a

timeframe determined by the individual.

happiness and satisfaction.

 are decided by an individual.

 Individual should to work hard to achieve his/her goals.

E.G. Getting good grad

 Group goals : Number of individuals are involved

 every group member works hard for the achievement

 The role of group leader becomes important in