STAGES OF MORAL

DEVELOPMENT
 Activity
O Recall moral dilemma(s): to cheat or not to
cheat(in various forms, copying, kodigo,
plagiarism, etc.)

1) What did you choose?

2) What is the reason for your choice?

-Share with a partner(dyad)

O The American psychologist Lawrence
Kohlberg grouped together children
while they were still small and did a
study on the moral development of
these people in a span of about
twenty years. He was interested in the
justification or reasoning behind the
right behavior of the group and was
able to mark out six stages of
development.
Stages of Moral Development
Stage 1
O Pre-conventional
Stage 2
Stage 3
O Conventional
Stage 4
Stage 5
O Post-conventional
Stage 6
 Pre- Conventional
Self-Focused
Stage 1: Punishment; Authority Orientation
•Obey or Pay
•Authority- Fear

Stage 2: Pleasure Orientation

• Self-satisfaction
• “What’s in it for me?”
 Pre-conventional level is
concerned with concrete consequences
to individuals, focusing on pursuing
concrete interest while avoiding
sanctions.
O Stage One
Punishment- Obedient Orientation

What is right is to obey the rules, avoid

physical damage to persons and property. The reason
is that one wants to avoid punishment. There is the
difference to power and position. In relation to social
perspective, what is considered is simply one's own
interest as there is still no sense of another's point of
view.
O Stage Two
Instrumental-Purposive Orientation

What is right is one's own immediate interest,

and letting others act also in their own interest. What
is right is what is fair. You do your thing, I do my
thing; we have fair equal exchange.
O The reason is to satisfy one's need and admit the
needs of others in their own self-interest. While
other is after his/her own interest, I too have my
own interest. If I do what is wrong, I might not
obtain my own interest.
 Conventional
Group- focused

Stage 3: Peer and Group Acceptance

Orientation
▸Approval- Group Norms
▸Loyalty- Belonging

Stage 4: Legalistic Orientation(LAW)

▸Law and Order
▸ Duty to Society
 Conventional Level is concerned with
fulfilling role expectations, maintaining and
supporting the social order, and identifying
persons or groups involved in this order.
O Stage 3
Interpersonal Agreement Orientation

What is deemed right is what pleases or

helps others, what is approved by others, what
reinforces mutual relationships such as trust,
loyalty, respect, and gratitude.
 The reason for helping others, for pleasing
others, for doing what is conventional or what is
mutually good for everyone is the need to be seen by
the self and others as a loyal, caring
person(important here is my image to others), the
desire to maintain rules and authority that support
your typical good behaviour and living up to what
significant others expect.
 In relation to the social perspective,
one takes the group expectations that take
primacy over individaul interest.
O Stage 4
Social Structure Orientation
What is right is doing one's duty, showing
respects for laws, authority and society and
contributing to the maintenance of society and
institutions. One's reason for doing one's duty and
the like is that, action which breaks the social or
moral agreements impair the system which is a value.
It would be hazardous to digress from conformity and
from social norms.
 One reason for this is that conscience is
imperative to the moral law, to the ethical system.
Another reason is the maintenance of the system for
its own sake. The social perspective takes the
perspective of a generalized other and not just the
personal other. The generalized other is the
institution, the society, or the church. One sees a
given social issue from the perspective of a fixed
system of laws and beliefs.
 Post-Conventional
Universal Focused

Stage 5: Common Good

▸ Standards of Society
▸ Social Contract

Satge 6: Universal Principles

▸ Decision of Conscience
▸ Logical Moral Principles
 Post-conventional level is concerned of
the effort to define the moral values and
principles that have validity and application
apart from the authority of groups or persons
and the ability to see beyond laws and norms of
society. It is here that one examines, adopts,
and applies the different ethical frameworks or
principles.
O Stage 5
Social Contract Orientation

This stage includes what is right,

individual rights, and standards which have
been critically examined and agreed upon. One
says, “these rights have been examined, and
since they are right, they are the ones to be
followed.”
 Here, one is concerned that obligations
be based on calculations of overall utilty, what
is really good for all. To a certain extent, there
is universality in this good but still within basic
human society, basic human agreements.
 The social perspective here views the
rights of each as best protected when stability
governs relations, when one recognizes that
moral and legal perspectives sometimes differ
and thus one may question the legal because it
may not be moral.
O Stage 6
Universal Ethical Principles

Kohlberg was not able to observe this

stage in his group , thus he projected it. What is
right is following self chosen ethical principles
based on judgements that are universalizable
and consistent.
 What is right are the universal
principles of justice, and the reason given are
the validity of universal and moral principles
and the sense of personal commitment to these
principles.
 The social perspective taken is the
moral point of view from which even the social
arrangements are derived; from this
universalizable moral point of view, moral
judgments are made.

Thought of as an ideal, aspirational stage

 Mr. Peterson's Dilemma
O Mr Peterson teaches a social studies class in the
local high school. He has a great rapport with his
students. He is known as one of the best tachers in
the school. One day, after a class discussion of
contemporary problems in America, several class
members approached Mr. Peterson in his office to
tell him that they planned to boycott the school
cafeteria in support of the migrant farm workers
across the country.
O Previously, the students had picketed the
local grocery store and passed out leaflets in
their neighborhood. They had also
circulated a petition and had written letters
to the school from purchasing non-union
lettuce and grapes. Both of these attempts to
change school policy had failed.
O The students indicated that they not only planned
to boycott the cafeteria, but hoped to shut it down
by setting up picket line during lunch hours. The
students told Mr. Peterson about the planned
boycott because of the many class discussions in
which they had talked about the American tradition
protest. They also insisted that the success of the
boycott depended on Mr. Peterson not breaking
their confidence; they did not want the school
administration to know about the plans.
O Mr. Peterson feels sure that other teachers and the
administration do not know about the planned boycott.
He also knows the part of the student body would not be
sympathetic to the boycott and this could result in a
physical confrontation. According to the school rule,
any organized student gathering on school grounds
must be cleared by school officials. Mr. Peterson also
knows that faculty members are supposed to notify the
school administration of any activity which may
interfere with the school schedule. Mr. Peterson
discussed the various implications of the boycott with
the students. These students understand these; however,
they are determined to go through with the plan.
O Should Mr. Peterson tell the
school administration of the
impending boycott and picket
line? Why, or why not?
FEELINGS
 Activity
O Recall an emotionally-charged experience(not
necessarily a moral dilemma) that you would
want to share with your group. (Triad)
O Class discussion after the sharing:
1) How did you feel sharing your experience?
2) What did you learn of yourself in sharing the
experience?
3) What did you learn of the other in listening to their
experience.
•Choose one member to share in the class
 Levels of Sharing

O Superficial: “tsismis”
O Intellectual: Sharing of ideas
O Gut Level: Sharing of feelings
Feeling and thinking are distinct but
intertwined. “I think” when we really mean “I
feel” vice versa but the two are distinct.

e.g. - “I think” I am lousy today.

- “I feel” my answer to the quiz is correct.
Common Attitude Toward Feeling:
AMBIVALENT
O We tend to look down on feeling.
O We screen out feelings because they are unstable.
e.g. we must not be overcome by our strong feeling

However,
- we also dont like cold detached people, people
with no feelings or do not know how to show
their feelings.
- we teach with feelings, with passion
 What is Feeling?
O to be involve in something
e.g. person, concept, myself, problem, another
feeling
O an immediate and spontaneous response to the
world than thinking.

body(smile, frown)
 Object of Feeling: VALUE

- Not taking your responsibility honestly can be

justified through reason but feeling would
always say it's wrong
e.g. a teacher neglecting his/her duty in response to the
school's unlikey policy

NOTE: it's not your feeling that is right or wrong but

your choice of actions that spring from value-
preferences.
Importance of Feelings
O Awareness:
-to know what I am involved in.
O Sharing:
1) connected with body, and the body
relates to others
2) reveals intimacy
O Invites Action
-to act what is the value
Phenomenology of Feelings
O structure of experience, or
consciousness(plato.stanford.edu)
O Order and stratification of emotional life:
1) Feelings of Sensation
2) Feelings of the lived body- life as functions
3) Psychic Feelings
4) Spiritual Feelings
O Sensible, feeling-states, and psychic feelings
may or may not be directed to an OBJECT.

O Only spiritual feelings are in essence

intentional. It means directed to an
OBJECT, a VALUE.

O Spiritual feeling is the most important

because of its essential and intentional
character.
 Values?
O What are Values?

- intentional objects of our feelings.

(categories of the heart)

e.g. beautiful- love

O How do we know a value?

- “what is essential is invisible to the eye. It is

only with the heart that one can see
rightly.”

- we know a value through the heart, because

we feel it.
O What are their characteritics?

- values are objective(a priori), eternal, and

immutable(do not change even if carriers
change)
 Groups of Values
O Value fall into two groups: Positive(+) and
Negative(-) Values

Existence-E
Non-Existence- NE
E+ +
NE+ -
E- -
NE- +
 Hierarchy of Values
1) Sensory Values: pleasant/unpleasant(SF)
2) Vital Values: noble/vulgar(FS)- Health
3) Spiritual Values: love/hatred(Spiritual F)
- beautiful and ugly
- justice and injustice
4) Holy and Unholy: Absolute Objects
-independent of things, powers persons
held to be holy at different times
e.g. value in cults, sacraments, and
other froms of worship
Characteristics of Values

O Ability to endure “MAGTATAGAL”

O Indivisibility “HINDI PWEDE
PAGHAHATIAN”
O Generates other values
O Gives deeper satisfaction
O Independent of the organism experiencing
it
 Moral Values
Good and Evil?

O “Good and evil ride on the back of the deed.”

O Good is the realization of a higher value in
place of a lower value, a positive value
instead of a negative value.
O Evil is the realization of a lower value in
place of a higher value, a negative value
instead of a positive value.
 MEDICAL ETHICS
O To keep patients from being addicted to certain
pain medications like morphine, most doctors
would prescribe alternate dosage of morphine
and plain normal saline solution. Both will create
a cessation of pain sensation, morpine exerting its
pharmacotherapeutic effect and the normal saline
creating a psychological effect to the patient
thinking that it was morphine being injected.
O In a surgical unit of certain hospital, a nurse
found a new application of the “Placebo Effect.”
O Nurse Lucky was a newly hired registered
nurse in the surgical unit of a hospital. He
was hired immediately because of his
brother who is a nurse supervisor for five
years of that hospital.
O He was being oriented on the floor by his senior
nurse. His senior nurse told him that some of the
patients in their floor will ask for pain
medications a lot but pain medications are not
given liberally because of its addictive properties.
They sometimes administer NSS sutions as
placebo for morphine. The senior nurse
demonstrated how placebo is carried out and
administered to their patients. He was instructed
to do it under the prescription of a doctor.
O One of his duty days one night, Lucky decided to
do an extra effort of cleaning the nurses station in
line with 5s program of the hospital. As he began
his task, he found vials of pain relievers and IV
antibiotics under the sink. The medicines were
not expired, so he wondered why it was kept
under sink. He also found that these medicines
cost P2,000 per vial. He decided to place it back
under the sink and decided to ask his senior nurse
later about it.
O One day, a patient's relative approached him and
asked where he can find the supervisor. Lucky
asked him why and introduced himself a his
brother. The patient's relative then said “Good
that he is your brother. Will you kindly hand him
over these three vials of medicines I bought from
him at half the price. My sister who is in the
surgical unit would no longer use it because she
died this morning. Kindly ask him if I could get a
refund because I really need the money to
arrange interment.
O Lucky was in a shock when he heard the patient's
relative. He remembered the medicines he found
the other night. He looked for it under the sink
and it was no longer there. When he asked his
senoir nurse about it he replied: “Just pretend
you do not see it. Everybody is doing it anyway.
Welcome to the club.” Lucky could not quite
comprehend what his senior nurse was talking
about. He decided to investigate.
O He found out that there are some nurses who do
not administer these expensive medications as
ordered. They administer instead a placebo even
if it was not ordered by the physician. They also
charge the patient with the medicine even though
they administer placebo. These extra vials are
kept and later sold to other patients who need it
at half the price. The money is then divided
among those who are involved.
O These occurences are not recorded in the
medication audit being conducted by nurse
supervisors because the nurse supervisor
for their floor is no other than this brother
who is also involved in the case.
O Lucky confronted his brother, he has this to
say: “If it weren't for these activities that I
am doing, you wouldn't have gone to college
and graduate as a nurse... so just keep your
mouth shut because no one else had
benefited more from this than you.
O Lucky was dumbfounded. He does not
know whether he would just keep silent and
join the group to protect his brother and
earn more too or make noise and make it
known to detriment of his brother to whom
he owes a lot.
O If you were in Lucky's position,
what would you do?
To Let Go or To Let Live
O I am a marketing personnel of a refutable
institution in Makati. I have been connected
with this company for the past three years.
In those years, I have delivered more than
was expected of me. After the department
head resigned two years ago, I was made to
do some of his roles. Eventually, I got
appointed as head of our department pro
tempore. My name is Marlowe.
O My dilemma started one Monday
afternoon, when the President of our
organization called my attention and for a
brief closed-door meeting.
O “I called for you to discuss Malou. One of
her clients remitted forty thousand in cash
as payment for their loan. Unfortunately,
this amount did not reach our office. It was
with Malou for over two weeks with
obviously malicious reasons.”
O “Having heard that this particular client is
about to call our attention, she immediately
went to the client and paid back the amount
in two separate payments within one week.
After which, we immediately proceeded to
our personnel department to air the matter.
As you may well know, we cannot tolerate
this kind of practice in our organization.”
O As the boss narated the details, I am
expecting one final line. The boss asked me,
“What is your opinion on this matter?
Should we let Malou go?”
O I was hesistant to provide the decision right
there and then because the thought that was
going through my mind was who I am to
decide on this issue? After expressing this
concern of mine, he asked me, “Put yourself
in my position. What would you do?”
O A week bfore the boss called my attention,
Malou was expressing her sentiments. First,
her financial requirements in order to keep
up with her loans (bad loans); second, the
difficulty she was experiencing raising two
babies on her own after a painful
separation, and of course, her salary that
could hardly keep up with the rising cost of
living.
O When the boss raised me the question, what
lingered on my mind was the welfare of the
children, her troubled finances, and her
remorse(when she remitted all that she got from
the client). On the other hand was the company
policy, the integrity of the company that was
tarnished with this one client, and the other
employees who have learned about the totality of
the incident.
O With all the trust that I have earned all
these years from my boss, it is likely that
my opinion will bear a great deal as to the
fate of Malou.

O If you were in my position, what

would you recommend my boss?
Moral Courage
 Short Story
O Professor X discovered that one of his
students, student A plagiarized a part of his
paper.
O Professor X gave an F mark for the
student’s paper. Professor X is also
planning to bring the issue to the
Committee on Discipline which would mean
suspension or dismissal.
O Professor X decided not to bring the issue to
the Committee on Discipline. Instead, he
asked student A to write a letter, to be given
to professor X personally the following day.
The letter’s content is an explanation why
professor X should not report student A to
the committee on discipline?
O Student A did write a handwritten letter(2 pages yellow pad
paper). The gist of which is begging professor X to give him
another chance for the sake of his parents. But what
touched professor X in the letter is his mention of what he
was taught in grade school: “when you do something
wrong, it is not enough to say I’m sorry, I will not do it
again but also to ask for recompense.”
O Two insights from professor X experience:

1) Moral Imagination: The act of asking

student
A to write a letter
2) Moral Courage: Professor X not reporting
student A to the committee
after reading the
letter
 Moral Imagination

O “an ability to imaginatively discern various

possibilities for acting within a given
situation and to envision the potential help
and harm that are likely to result from a
given action(Mark Johnson, p. 92).”
O “our ability to elaborate and appraise
different courses of action which are only
partially determined by the given content of
moral rules, in order to learn what in a
particular situation is the morally best
thing to do(Charles Latmore, p. 92).”
 Moral Courage

KATAPANGANG
MORAL
- Tapang sa pagharap ng panganib
- Panganib sa harap ng isang moral na sitwasyon

O It is the will(kilos loob) to do what one knows is

the good or the will to avoid what one knows to
be bad.
 Courage as Virtue
O Aristotle held that courage is a virtue.
O Latin “virtus”, “vir” means “man” so
“virtus” means “manliness” synonymous
with courage because in Ancient barbaric
times, it is the man who protects the village
from the enemy. Later, when killing is no
longer an everyday act, courage came to
mean internal fortitude of both man and
woman.
O It takes courage to apologize.
O If a friend is grieving, it takes courage to
ask her directly how she is doing.
O It takes courage to do something nice that
you don’t really want to do.

(Rachels, p. 177)
O “Ang magalit? Madali iyan. Kayang
magalit ng kahit sino. Pero ang magalit sa
tamang tao, sa tamang tindi, sa tamang
panahon, sa tamang layunin, sa tamang
dahilan, at sa tamang paraan- hindi iyan
kaya ng lahat, at hindi ito madali.” –
Aritoteles, Etika Nicomachea
O Courage, a mean between two extreme:
cowardice(lack) and foolhardiness(excess)
O Courage in an unworthy cause is not a
virtue(Peter Geach). So we should add
“Moral” to courage.
O Sa pagitan ng prinsipyo at kilos: Katapangang
Moral

O PRINCIPLE- MORAL COURAGE –ACTION

O Katapangan ang nagtutulay sa pagitan ng

katwiran at kilos.
O Prinsipyo/katwiran

Katapangan kilos
 Reflection

O Ang moral na imahinasyon ay kailangan

upang makahanap ng alternatibong(best)
paraan sa paglutas ng isang problemadong
sitwasyon.

O Ang katapangang moral ang magtutulak para

maisakatuparan ang napiling sulosyon para
maisaayos ang problimadong sitwasyon.