Geology Topic 2

TOPIC 2: MINERALOGY
TOPIC 3: THE ROCK
GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

CYCLE
ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF MINERALS

 All rocks are composed of minerals, which are homogeneous substances with fixed chemical composition,
crystal forms, and other distinctive characteristics such as colour, lustre, and hardness. The chemical
elements and the crystal forms determine the properties of the minerals. The chemical elements depend on
the composition of the rock in liquid state. Crystals are formed when a rock body passes from the liquid to
the solid state.
 All minerals are solids with the exception of metallic mercury and water which is considered to be a
mineral. The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) provides the following definition for a mineral:
“A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been
formed as a result of geological processes.”
This table gives the relative hardness scale that is used by mineralogists. Based

on ten well-known minerals, it is called the Mohs Hardness Scale, named after
Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs who developed it in 1812. The Mohs scale
ranks minerals by their ability to scratch each other. The Mohs scale is related to
absolute hardness but does not measure the same thing because resistance to
scratching depends on additional factors besides the force needed to make an
indentation.
Tectosilicate, formerly called
polysilicate, any member of a group of
compounds with structures that have silicate
tetrahedrons (each of which consists of a
central silicon atom surrounded by four
oxygen atoms at the corners of the
tetrahedron) arranged in a three-dimensional
lattice. Each of the four oxygen atoms of a
given tetrahedron is shared with another
tetrahedron. Each tetrahedron, therefore, is
linked to four others.
Mineral
Formation

 Cooling of magma: crystallization
 Evaporation: salt
 Hydrothermal
Silicate minerals are the building block of
igneous rocks

Granite: individual minerals
make-up the rock
Mountains, British Columbia
COAL AND PETROLEUM
Other resources are created in very limited quantities and it takes a very long time for such

resources to be replenished. Such resources are known as exhaustible natural resources. Ex:
coal, petroleum, minerals, natural gas, etc.
Coal and Petroleum
Coal and petroleum are formed as a result of degradation of

ancient plant life which lived millions of years ago. These dead
plant matter started to pile up, eventually forming a substance
called peat. Over time, heat and pressure from geological
processes transformed these materials into coal. Since these are
formed from essentially fossils, they are also known as fossil fuels.
How Is Coal Formed?
Formation of coal dates back to millions of years ago, when the earth was covered only with
vast moist forests, having huge trees, shrubs, ferns, etc. These plants underwent their life cycle
and withered away, eventually falling back to the ground, most of which were swamps. New

plants replaced them, they underwent a life cycle and the whole process continued repeatedly
over the years, as a result of which the earth bed started accumulating all these dead plants.
This gave rise to a very thick layer of dead decomposed matter packing down plant matter
washing away all the decayed matter. Physical and chemical changes took place as a result of
heat and temperature extracting out all oxygen leaving the plant layers with carbon-rich content,
thus resulting in the formation of coal over a period of time.
Petroleum
Petroleum is a fossil fuel that naturally occurs in the liquid form created by the decomposition
of organic matter beneath the surface of the earth millions of years ago. These fossil fuels are
then refined into usable substances such as petrol, kerosene, etc.

It is formed by the combination of hydrocarbons and other substances, mainly sulphur. When
first collected in its natural form, it is termed as crude oil. This substance is generally
characterized by a brownish-black colour. Although, it can also differ between red to pale
yellow or even colourless. Its thickness (viscosity) varies from nearly solid tar-like consistency
to low viscosity, almost like water.
Refining petroleum thus obtained yields many useful products.
THE ROCK CYCLE
S

Geology Topic 2

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TOPIC 2: MINERALOGY

TOPIC 3: THE ROCK

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

scratching depends on additional factors besides the force needed to make an

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

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