Myth 1: Women are

physiologically unsuited for

endurance activity.

• BUSTED:
• American runner Joan Benoit won
the gold medal in the first-ever
Olympic marathon for women
with a time of 2:24:52. Her time
would have won 11 of the
previous 20 men’s Olympic
marathons!
Myth 2: pregnant women
should not exercise
• Austin American Statesman on June 17, 1995. “When Sue Olsen lines up
today for Grandma’s Marathon in St. Paul, Minn., along the North Shore of Lake
Superior, she will be precisely 16 days short of the due date for her first child. ‘I
get a lot of advice both ways,’ Olsen, 38, said with a laugh. ‘There are people who
think I’m crazy and shouldn’t be out there, and there are a lot of supportive
people.’ . . . Olsen’s husband will drive parallel to the course with a cellular phone
in his car, prepared to whisk her to the hospital if the situation arises.” Although
most would question the wisdom of this, the point is that Olsen was able to
complete the marathon in 4 h. The following weekend she completed a 24 h race,
delivering a baby boy the next day. In 2005, Olsen’s son, John “Miles” Olsen,
completed 32.7 mi in a 24 h run, just a few weeks before his 10th birthday. His
mother completed 119.6 mi (Doug Grow, Star Tribune, Minneapolis, MN, June
7, 2005).
SEX DIFFERENCE IN SPORTS AND
EXERCISE
body Size and Composition
Physiological responses to acute exercise
• For the same amount of muscle, there are no differences in strength between the
sexes, although women have smaller muscle fiber cross-sectional areas than men
and typically less muscle mass than men.
• At the same submaximal exercise intensity, women generally have cardiac outputs
similar to those of men. Thus, their higher heart rates appear to fully compensate
for their lower stroke volumes. The lower stroke volume is largely due to a smaller
left ventricle and lower blood volume, both the result of women’s smaller body
size.
• .Compared to men, women generally have lower VO2max values when expressed
in ml · kg–1 · min–1. Part of this difference in V .O2max values between women and
men is related to the extra body fat carried by women and, to a lesser extent, to
their lower hemoglobin concentration, which results in a lower oxygen content in
the arterial blood.
Physiological adaptations to exercise Training
• Women can experience major increases in strength (20-40%) as a
result of resistance training, and the magnitude of these changes is
similar to that seen in men. These gains are attributable to both
muscle hypertrophy and neural factors.
• With aerobic training, women experience aver age increases in
V .O2max (15-25%), similar to those experienced by men.
Special Issues
• menstruation and menstrual dysfunction,
• pregnancy,
• osteoporosis,
• eating disorders, and
• environmental factors
Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual Phase ( Days 1 – 5)
• Menstruation occurs, marked by the shedding of the uterine lining
• Hormone levels, particularly estrogen and progesterone, are low.
• Bleeding typically lasts 3-7 days.
Follicular Phase (Days 1-13):
•Overlapping with the menstrual phase, the follicular phase begins on the first day of menstruation.
•Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the development of several ovarian follicles, each
containing an immature egg.
•Estrogen levels rise, promoting the thickening of the uterine lining.
Ovulation (Around Day 14):
• A surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers the release of a mature egg from the dominant follicle.
• This is the midpoint of the menstrual cycle.
• Estrogen levels peak just before ovulation.
Luteal Phase (Days 15-28):
• The ruptured follicle transforms into a structure called the corpus luteum.
• The corpus luteum produces progesterone and some estrogen.
• Hormone levels prepare the uterine lining for a potential pregnancy.
• If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to a decline in hormone levels.
Menstruation Begins Again (Day 28, if no pregnancy):
• If fertilization and implantation do not occur, the drop in hormone levels triggers the start of a new
menstrual cycle.
• The uterine lining is shed, and the cycle begins anew.
• There appears to be no general pattern concern ing the ability of
women to achieve their best performances during any specific phase of
their menstrual cycle. World records have been set by elite female
athletes during every phase of the menstrual cycle.
• Menarche appears to come later in highly trained elite athletes in
certain sports such as gymnastics. However, there is no strong evidence
to support the contention that the intense training for the sport delays
menarche.
• The etiology of amenorrhea in exercising women is secondary to
inadequate caloric intake in the face of high exercise-related energy
expenditure, resulting in a net energy deficit. The energy deficit or low
energy availability, in turn, stimulates com pensatory mechanisms such
as weight loss and energy conservation that translate to hypothalamic
suppression of ovarian function and amenorrhea.
Pregnancy
• During exercise, major concerns for the preg nant athlete include the
possible risk of fetal hypoxia, fetal hyperthermia, reduced carbohy
drate supply to the fetus, miscarriage, prema ture labor, low birth
weight, and abnormal fetal development. ➤ ➤
• The benefits of a properly prescribed exercise program during
pregnancy outweigh the poten tial risks. Such an exercise program
must be coordinated with the woman’s obstetrician.
• Pregnant women can derive health benefits from mild to moderate
exercise performed at least three days per week.
• Women should avoid supine exercise and motionless standing after
the first trimester because this compromises venous return, which in
turn compromises cardiac output.
• Women should stop exercising when fatigued, should not exercise to
exhaustion, and should modify their routines based on maternal symp
toms. Weight-bearing exercises under some cir cumstances may be
continued, but non-weight bearing activities such as cycling or
swimming are encouraged to reduce the risk of injury.
• Care should be taken not to participate in sports or exercises in which
falling, a loss of balance, or blunt abdominal trauma may occur.
• Because pregnancy requires an extra 300 kcal (1,255 kJ) of energy per
day, an exercising woman should pay particular attention to diet to
ensure that she is receiving adequate calories.
• Heat dissipation is of particular concern in the first trimester, so an
exercising woman should wear correct clothing, be sure that her fluid
intake is sufficient, and select optimal environ mental conditions.
• A woman’s regular prepregnancy exercise rou tine should be resumed
gradually postpartum, as pregnancy-associated changes may persist four
to six weeks
Osteoporosis
• Athletes with secondary
amenorrhea are at
increased risk for low
bone mass. The low bone
mass does not appear to
be totally reversible with
the resumption of normal
menstrual function.
eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa is a disorder characterized by • refusal to maintain
more than the minimal normal weight based on age and height, •
distorted body image, • intense fear of fatness or gaining weight, and •
amenorrhea. Females from ages 12 to 21 are at greatest risk for this
disorder
• Bulimia nervosa, originally termed bulimarexia, is characterized by •
recurrent episodes of binge eating; • a feeling of lack of control during
these binges; and • purging behavior, which can include self induced
vomiting, laxative use, and diuretic use. The prevalence of bulimia in the
population at great est risk, again adolescent and young adult females,
is generally considered to be about 4% and possibly closer to 1%.
Female athlete Triad
• In the early 1990s, it became apparent that there is a reasonably
strong association among • disordered eating, energy deficiency, or
low energy availability; • secondary amenorrhea; and • low bone
mass.
environmental Factors
• Women generally have slightly lower sweat rates than men for the
same heat stress, the result of lower sweat production per sweat
gland. However, this reduced maximal sweating capacity typically has
a minimal effect on thermoregulation, especially in humid heat.