Bridge & Tunnel Engineering

Submitted By: Rana Muhammad Hamza

2K23-MS-TE-05
Submitted To: Dr. Zahid Shb.
 General aspects and alignment of
tunnels, Drilling, Blasting, tunneling,
Shafts, Ventilation.
• Tunnels are underground or underwater
passages that are constructed for various
purposes, such as transportation, water
conveyance, mining, and utilities. The general
aspects and alignment of tunnels are crucial
considerations in their design and
construction. Here are key aspects to
consider:
Purpose and Function:
• Transportation: Tunnels for roads, railways, or
subways need to be aligned to connect two
points efficiently while considering factors like
gradient and curvature.
• Water Conveyance: Tunnels for water supply
or drainage must be aligned to follow the
natural topography while maintaining the
required gradient.
 Geology and Ground Conditions:
• The geological conditions through which the
tunnel passes are critical. Different rock types
and soil conditions affect construction
methods, stability, and safety.
• Groundwater conditions must be considered
to prevent water ingress during and after
construction.
Alignment:
• The alignment of a tunnel refers to its horizontal
and vertical positioning. Horizontal alignment
involves the curvature and direction of the tunnel,
while vertical alignment deals with the gradient.
• Horizontal curves are designed to accommodate
the topography, avoid obstacles, and maintain
safety. Vertical alignment considers factors like
gradient, profile, and alignment changes to
ensure smooth traffic flow or efficient water
conveyance.
Environmental Impact:
• Tunnels can have environmental impacts,
especially during construction. Alignment
should consider minimizing disruption to
ecosystems, avoiding sensitive areas, and
addressing potential impacts on air and water
quality.
Safety
Safety is paramount in tunnel design and
construction. The alignment should minimize
risks associated with geotechnical conditions,
natural hazards, and potential accidents during
and after construction.
Access and Emergency Exit Routes
Adequate access points and emergency exit
routes must be planned and incorporated into
the tunnel alignment. This is essential for safety
and maintenance purposes.
 Regulatory and Legal Considerations

• Compliance with local regulations,

standards, and legal requirements is
essential. Approval processes often
involve detailed scrutiny of the tunnel
alignment in relation to environmental,
safety, and land-use considerations.
Construction Method
• The chosen construction method (e.g.,
cut-and-cover, bored tunnel, immersed
tube) can influence the alignment.
Different methods have different
requirements and constraints that need to
be considered during the design phase.
Cost and Economic Considerations
The alignment should balance the
construction costs with the overall economic
benefits and operational efficiency of the
tunnel.
• In summary, the alignment of tunnels involves
a comprehensive evaluation of geological,
environmental, safety, and economic factors to
ensure the successful and sustainable
construction and operation of the tunnel.
Drilling & Blasting
Drilling and blasting are common and traditional
methods used in tunnel construction, particularly in
hard rock conditions. This method is employed to
excavate rock and create the tunnel bore. Here is an
overview of the drilling and blasting process in
tunnel construction:
Drilling Process
• Drill Holes:
• Drilling is the initial phase of the process. Holes
are drilled into the rock face using specialized
drilling equipment. The pattern, depth, and
diameter of the drill holes depend on the type of
rock, tunnel dimensions, and the desired
fragmentation.

• Drill Types:
Different types of drills may be used, including
rotary drills and percussion drills. Rotary drills
rotate the drill bit against the rock, while
percussion drills use a hammering action.
• Pattern Design:
The drill pattern is designed based on the rock type,
tunnel dimensions, and other geological
considerations. Common patterns include parallel,
fan, or ring drilling.

• Blast Holes:
Once the drilling is complete, the holes are loaded
with explosives. These holes are often referred to as
blast holes.
• Blasting Process:
• Explosives Loading:
Explosives are carefully placed and packed into the blast
holes. The amount and type of explosives used depend on
the rock characteristics and the desired excavation results.

• Initiation System:
A system to initiate the explosives is used. This can
involve electric blasting caps, shock tubes, or other
initiation methods. The timing and sequence of the
explosions are critical for achieving the desired
excavation results.
• Blast Sequencing
Blast sequencing is planned to ensure controlled
and safe excavation. This involves dividing the entire
blast area into smaller sections and initiating the blasts
in a specific sequence to minimize vibration, control
rock fragmentation, and enhance safety.
• Mucking and Hauling:
After the blast, the loosened rock (muck) is
removed from the tunnel using heavy machinery such
as excavators, loaders, or conveyor systems. The
muck is then hauled away from the construction site.
• Safety Considerations:
• Safety is of utmost importance in drilling and
blasting operations. Strict protocols are
followed to protect workers and minimize
environmental impact.
• Adequate ventilation and protective measures
are implemented to control dust and fumes.
• Clear communication and warning systems are
established to ensure the safety of all
personnel involved in the blasting process.
Shafts and Ventilation in tunnels
• Purpose of Shafts:
Shafts are vertical or inclined structures that
provide access to the tunnel, allowing for
construction, maintenance, and emergency
evacuation. They serve as entry and exit points for
workers, equipment, and materials.
Types of Shafts:
Construction Shafts: Used during tunnel
construction for the entry and removal of materials.
• Ventilation Shafts: Dedicated to facilitating air
exchange and maintaining air quality in the
tunnel.
• Service Shafts: Designed for housing utilities,
equipment, and access to tunnel systems.
• Location and Spacing: The location and
spacing of shafts depend on the length and
depth of the tunnel, as well as the geological
and hydrogeological conditions. Strategic
placement ensures efficient construction,
ventilation, and emergency access.
• Design Considerations:
• Structural Design: Shafts must be structurally
sound to support the loads imposed during
construction and operation.
• Waterproofing: Waterproofing measures are
essential to prevent water ingress into the
tunnel through the shaft.
• Lining: Depending on the geology, shafts may
require lining to provide stability and prevent
collapse.
• Construction Methods:
Shafts can be constructed using various methods,
including conventional excavation, diaphragm walls,
secant or tangent piles, and shaft sinking
techniques.

• Temporary and Permanent Shafts:

During construction, temporary shafts are often
used for material removal and access. Once
construction is complete, these may be filled,
capped, or converted into permanent ventilation or
service shafts.
• Ventilation:
• Importance of Ventilation:
Ventilation is crucial for maintaining a safe and
healthy environment within the tunnel. It helps
control air quality, temperature, and removes harmful
gases generated during construction or from vehicle
emissions.
• Natural Ventilation:
Natural ventilation relies on the pressure
differences between the tunnel entrance and exit,
as well as the buoyancy effect. Ventilation shafts
play a key role in facilitating natural airflow.
• Forced Ventilation:
In some cases, mechanical ventilation systems, such
as fans, are employed to actively circulate air
through the tunnel. This is common in longer or
more complex tunnels.
• Emergency Ventilation:
Ventilation systems must be designed to handle
emergency situations, such as fires or other
incidents, ensuring the rapid evacuation of smoke
and noxious gases.
• Airflow Analysis:
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and other
airflow analysis techniques are used to optimize
ventilation design, ensuring effective air circulation
and pollutant removal.
• Monitoring and Control:
Ventilation systems are equipped with sensors to
monitor air quality, temperature, and gas
concentrations. Automated controls adjust fan
speeds and airflow based on real-time conditions.
• Regulatory Compliance:
Ventilation designs must comply with safety
regulations and standards, considering factors such
as maximum allowable concentrations of pollutants
and emergency evacuation requirements.

• Integration with Tunnel Design:

Ventilation considerations are integrated into the
overall tunnel design from the beginning to ensure a
seamless and effective system.
Shafts and ventilation are integral components
of tunnel infrastructure, providing access, safety,
and maintaining a conducive environment for
both construction and operational phases.
Proper planning, design, and implementation
are essential to achieve optimal performance
and meet safety standards.