Histology of the Nervous

Tissue
The Anatomical Organization of the Nervous
System
• Central nervous system (CNS)
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves

• Ganglia (collections of cell bodies outside the CNS)

• Receptors
Functional Organization of the Nervous
System
• Somatic Nervous System
• Voluntary/conscious control
• Somatic afferent/efferent
• Autonomic Nervous System
• Unconscious/ involuntary
• Efferent and afferent components
• Sympathetic (thoracolumbar division)
• Parasympathetic (craniosacral division)
The Nervous System
• Made up of specialized cells that are specialized to conduct electric
impulses
• The basic functional unit is the neuron
• Supporting cells constitute the neuroglia which perform different
functions
• Nervous tissue is richly supplied with blood vessels
 The Cells in the Nervous System

• Neurons
• Neuroglia/Supporting cells
• Microglia
• Oligodendrocytes
• Astrocytes
• Ependymal cells
• Schwann cell
• Satellite cells
 Cellular Components of the Nervous System

Neuroglia

Neuron

Image showing cellular components of the nervous system.

Wheater’s Functional Histology; 5th edition, 2006, Young, Lowe, Stevens and Heath;
Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Fig 7.4d
Figure representing a Neurone
Image from Kelley, Kaye and Pawlina, "Histology, a Text and Atlas," 4th ed., page 284. Neuron-Ross4-284.tif.
Neurons
• Large cells (5-150µm)
• Has a cell body (soma or
perikaryon)
• Has processes (dendrites and
axons)
• Conducts impulses
 Cell body of the Neuron

• Polygonal in shape
• Has a large, central nucleus which is pale staining with prominent nucleoli
• Cytoplasm is perinuclear and also extends into the dendrites
• Nissl substance (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum observed as basophilic
material)
• Cytoskeleton : neurofilaments and microtubules
• Axon hillock which is a constriction at the start of the axon
• Dendrites
Perikaryon of a motor neuron
A-axon D-dendrite N-nucleus NB-Nissl body AH-axon hillock V-blood vessel NU-nucleolus
Color Atlas of Basic Histology; 1993; Berman; Appelton and Lange; Fig 6-4
 Dendrites
• Dendrites are receptive surfaces of the neuron.
• May be one or several in number
• Are extensions of the plasma membrane of the neuron
• Have abundance of mitochondria
• Primary dendrites may divide into secondary, tertiary etc.
• Some dendrites may be studded with small mushroom shaped
appendages called spines.
Axons
• Single, large extension specialized for receiving input
• Cylindrical and unbranched for most of its length
• Portion of the neuron that extends from the axonal hillock
• Can be myelinated by Schwann (PNS) cells and oligodendrocytes
(CNS)
• Neurotubules and neurofibrils are found in the axon
• Can be as long as 1.5m in length in humans
• Ends in small structures known as synaptic knobs or terminal boutons
• Synaptic knobs contains neurotransmitter as vesicles
Terminal boutons and Motor end plates
(Neuromuscular Junction)

Figure showing Terminal Bouton and Motor End Plate

Fig 10-13, Junqueira’s Basic Histology, 12th ed.
Myelination
• Myelination refers to the production of myelin sheath
• Consists of plasma membrane of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells
• In the PNS, Schwann cells spirals its cell membrane repeatedly around
a single nerve fiber. Neurilemma is formed.
• In the CNS, oligodendrocytes myelinate several nerve fibers in their
vicinity. They anchored to multiple nerve fibers. No neurilemma is
formed
 A B
Histological section of an unmyelinated nerve (A) and a myelinated nerve B
Neuroglial cells
• There are about a trillion (1012) neurons in the nervous system

• Neuroglia outnumber the neurons by as much as 50 to 1

• Neuroglia or glial cells play the following roles:

• Support and protect the neurons
• Bind neurons together and form supportive framework for nervous tissue
• Guide migrating neurons to their destination in the fetus
• Prevents neurons from touching each other and gives precision to conduction
pathways
Oligodendrocytes
• Forms myelin sheaths in
the CNS
• Forms an insulating layer
which speeds up
conduction
• Homologue of Schwann cell
• Forms myelin sheath along
several axons
 Ependymal Cells
• Lines internal cavities of
the brain
• Consists of simple
cuboidal or low
columnar ciliated
epithelium
• Secretes and circulates
cerebrospinal fluid
 Microglia

• Small wandering
macrophages
• Phagocytizes cellular debris
• Are mesodermal in origin
 Astrocyte
• Most abundant glial cell in CNS
• Covers brain surface and non-synaptic
regions in the grey matter of CNS
• Forms supportive frame work for nervous
tissue
• Have perivascular feet which is in contact
with blood vessels to form blood-brain
capillaries
• Converts glucose to lactate as nourishment
for neurons
• Absorbs excess neurotransmitters and ions
and maintains chemical balance
• Secretes nerve growth factors that promote
neuron growth and synapse formation
• Forms scar tissue following neuronal damage
Schwann Cell
• Envelops nerve fibers in the
PNS
• Winds repeatedly around
the nerve fiber
• Produces myelin sheath
• Assist in regeneration of
damaged fibers
Satellite Cells
• Surrounds cell
bodies in ganglia of
the PNS (supporting S
cells)
• Provides electrical
insulation around
the soma
• Regulates the
chemical
environment of the
neurons
Cells of the CNS : How many can you identify?
 Morphological Classification of Neurons

• Unipolar/Pseudounipolar Neurons
• Has only one process (may later branch
into central and peripheral branches)
• Located in dorsal root ganglia (also found
in some cranial nerve ganglia)
• Bipolar Neurons
• has two processes: one dendrite and one
axon
• Found in vestibular ganglia, cochlear and
olfactory epithelium
• Multipolar Neurons:
• Multiple dendrites and an axon
• Present in the entire nervous system
Unipolar Cells

Dorsal root ganglia unipolar cells

Bipolar Neuron
Multipolar Neurons

motor neurons are in anterior grey horn are

multipolar
Classification of Neurons based on Function
• Motor(Efferent) Neurons:
• Originate in the CNS
• Conducts impulses to skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles, glands
• Sensory (Efferent) Neurons:
• Receives sensory output at their dendritic terminals and conducts impulses
• Located at the periphery of the body
• Are pseudounipolar
• Interneurons:
• small bipolar cells with short processes
• Located in the CNS only
• Connects sensory, motor neurons by creating neuronal circuits
Figure showing types of Neurons according to function
Image courtesy of © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Classification based on Axonal and Dendrite
Length
• Golgi Type I
• Have long axons
• Establishes connection with remotely placed cell bodies
• Examples are neurons forming tracts in brain and spinal cord (pyramidal cells)
• Golgi Type II
• Short axons
• Located in the cerebral cortex
• Establishes connection between neurons in adjacent layers of cortex only
(Purkinje cell of cerebellum)
A – Pyramidal Cell (Golgi type I) B - Purkinje Cell (Golgi Type II)
 Ganglia
• These are aggregations of nerve cells outside the CNS
• The cell bodies of neurons are surrounded by satellite cells
• Neurons in cranial and dorsal root ganglia are
pseudounipolar
Histological Structure of the Spinal Cord
 Histology of the Spinal Cord
• Consists of the following
structures:
• Central canal (containing
CSF)
• H-shaped grey matter
• Outer layer of white matter
 Structure of the Cerebral Cortex
• The nerve cells and associated fibres of cerebral cortex are so arranged as to form six layers, which are
poorly distinguished. The layers are named according to the type and density of the cells:
• Molecular layer (plexiform layer)—is the most superficial, well defined layer. It consists mainly of nerve
fibres and occasional horizontal cells of Cajal.
• External granular layer—contains large number of stellate cells and small pyramidal cells.
• External pyramidal layer—is mainly made of medium sized pyramidal cells and also contains few stellate
cells and cells of Martinotti.
• Internal granular layer—is composed of closely packed stellate cells and horizontally oriented white
fibre band called outer band of Baillarger.
• Internal pyramidal layer (ganglionic layer)—consists mainly of large pyramidal cells and few stellate cells
and cells of Martinotti. This layer also contains horizontally arranged fibres that form the inner band of
Baillarger.
• Multiform layer (layer of polymorphic cells)—is the deepest layer. It contains predominantly fusiform
cell and also few stellate cells and cells of Martinotti intermixed with many nerve fibres entering or
leaving the underlying white matter.
Cerebral Cortex
• Has 6 layers:
• Molecular/plexiform layer – has
nerve terminals
• External granular layer – has
stellate cells
• External pyramidal layer – large
pyramidal & neuroglial cells
• Internal granular layer – has
granule & pyramidal cells
• Internal pyramidal layer-largest
pyramidal cells seen here
• Multiform layer (polymorphous
layer)– has Martinotti cells
Histological layers of the Cerebral Cortex
1. Pyramidal cells
- Are the most common type of neurons found in the cerebral cortex.
- Are pyramidal in shape.
- Their size ranges from 10 μm to 120 μm.
- Giant pyramidal cells (120 μm) in the motor cortex are called Betz
cells.
- The apices of the neurons give rise to dendritic processes which are
directed towards the surface of the cortex,whereas the bases give
origin to axons which forms projection fibres of the white matter.
- They are distributed in layers, 2–5, and progressively increase in size.
2. Stellate/Granule cells
Small, star-shaped neurons of uniform diameter (8 μm).
Have short axons terminating in nearby neurons.
3. Fusiform cells
Spindle-shaped cells placed at right angles to the surface in the deep layer.
Dendrites arise from each pole of the cell body and axon arises from the cell
body just above the lower pole and enters the white matter.
4. Horizontal cells of Cajal
They are also spindle-shaped cells but oriented horizontally, parallel to the
surface in the superficial layer ( molecular).
Dendrites arise from each pole and axon arises from the cell body and runs
horizontally, parallel to the surface making contact with dendrites of pyramidal
cells.
5. Cells of Martinotti
Small multipolar cells found in layers 3–6.
The axons are directed towards the surface of the cortex and generally end in
the molecular layer
Layers of the Cerebellum
• The sharply folded cerebellar cortex coordinates muscular activity throughout
the body and is organized with three layers:
• A thick outer molecular layer has much neuropil and scattered neuronal cell
bodies.
• A thin middle layer consists only of very large neurons called Purkinje cells
(named for the 19th century Czech histologist Jan Purkinje). These are
conspicuous even in H&E-stained sections, and their dendrites extend throughout
the molecular layer as a branching basket of nerve fibers.
• A thick inner granular layer contains various very small, densely packed neurons
(including granule cells, with diameters of only 4-5 μm) and little neuropil.
Histological layers of the Cerebellum
• The layers of the cerebellum are:
• Molecular layer
• Purkinje cell layer
• Granular layer
Histology of the Cerebellum