Introduction to

Click to add text Mechatronics,

sensors & Actuators

Unit I
December 19, 2023 2

Unit I - Syllabus
Lecture No Content to be covered
Introduction to Mechatronics and its Applications Measurement
1
Characteristics (Static/Dynamic),
Types of sensors; Motion Sensors – Encoder (Absolute & incremental),
2
Lidar, Eddy Current
3 Proximity (Optical, Inductive, Capacitive), MEMS Accelerometer
Temperature sensor –Pyrometer, Infrared Thermometer; Force /
4
Pressure Sensors – Strain gauges,
Piezoelectric sensor; Flow sensors – Electromagnetic, Ultrasonic, Hot-
5 wire anemometer; Color sensor – RGB type; Biosensors – Enzyme, ECG,
EMG
6 Servo motor; Hydraulic and Pneumatic
7 linear electrical actuators Selection of Sensor & Actuator
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What is Mechatronics ?
• Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of
mechanical engineering (“mecha” for
mechanisms), electronic engineering
(“tronics” for electronics), and software
engineering.
• The word “mechatronics” was first coined by
Mr. Tetsuro Moria, a senior engineer of a
Japanese company, Yaskawa, in 1969.
 Definitions of Mechatronics
• The synergistic integration of mechanical engineering, with
electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and
manufacturing of industrial products and processes.
• Mechatronics is the application of complex decision making to the
operation of physical systems.
• Mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal design of
electromechanical products.
• A mechatronic system is not just a marriage of electrical and
mechanical systems and is more than just a control system; it is a
complete integration of all of them.
What is evident is that the study of mechatronics provides a mechanism for scholars
interested in understanding and explaining the engineering design process to define,
classify, organize, and integrate many aspects of product design into a coherent
package
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Mechatronics System
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Why Mechatronics ?
• Advantages & limitations of mechanical
systems
• Advantages & limitations of electronic systems
• Role of computers
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Elements of Mechatronics
 Measurement Characteristics
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• Range —Difference between the

maximum and minimum value of
the sensed parameter
• Resolution —The smallest change
the sensor can differentiate
• Accuracy —Difference between the
measured value and the true value
• Precision —Ability to reproduce the
results repeatedly with a given
accuracy
• Sensitivity —Ratio of change in
output to a unit change of the input
• Zero offset —A nonzero value
output for no input
 Measurement Characteristics
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• Linearity —Percentage of deviation

from the best-fit linear calibration

curve

• Zero Drift —The departure of output

from zero value over a period of time

for no input

• Response time —The time lag

between the input and output

• Operating temperature —The range in

which the sensor performs as specified

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Measurement Characteristics
• Range/Span
– The range (or span) of a sensor is the difference between the
minimum (or most negative) and maximum inputs that will
give a valid output. Range is typically specified by the
manufacturer of the sensor.
• For example, a common type K thermocouple has a range of 900°C
(from −150°C to 750°C).
• Resolution
– The resolution of a sensor is the smallest increment of input
that can be reliably detected. Resolution is also frequently
known as the least count of the sensor.
• The resolution of analog sensors is usually limited only by low-
level electrical noise and is often much better than equivalent
digital sensors.
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Sensitivity
• Sensor sensitivity is
defined as the change in
output per unit change in
input.
• The sensitivity of digital
sensors is closely related to
the resolution.
• The sensitivity of an analog
sensor is the slope of the
output versus input line.
• linear & nonlinear behavior
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Error 12

• Error is the difference between a measured value and the

true input value.
• Two types of errors:
– bias (or systematic) errors and
– precision (or random) errors.
• Bias errors can be further subdivided into
– calibration errors (a zero or null point error is a common type of
bias error created by a nonzero output value when the input is
zero),
– loading errors (adding the sensor to the measured system
changes the system),
– errors due to sensor sensitivity to variables other than the
desired one (e.g., temperature effects on strain gages).
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Repeatability
O/P
• Repeatability (or
reproducibility) refers to a Un Loading
sensor’s ability to give
identical outputs for the I/P
same input
• Precision (or random) errors
cause a lack of repeatability Loading
• can be accounted for by
averaging several
measurements
Hysteresis
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Saturation & Deadband 14

• Saturation :- All real

actuators have some
maximum output capability,
regardless of the input.

• Deadband :- The deadband

is typically a region of input
close to zero at which the
output remains zero. Once
the input travels outside the
deadband, then the output
varies with input.
 Dynamic characteristics
Main Dynamic characteristics are:
• Speed of response: The rapidness with which
a measurement system responds
• Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in
response of the measurement system to the
changes in the measured quantity.
• Fidelity: The accuracy of the representation
when compared to real world.
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Basic Principle of Sensor / Transduction

Measuring Conversion Device Useful Signal

Parameter

Displacement, Voltage, current,

Temperature, Pressure capacitance
etc…
Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon (temperature,
displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional output signal (electrical,
mechanical, magnetic, etc.).

Transducer is a device that converts one form of (energy) signal into another form
of (energy) signal.
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Motion Sensors
– Encoders
– LIDAR
– Eddy Current
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Encoders
• Digital Optical Encoders
– Absolute Digital Optical Encoders
– Incremental Digital Optical Encoders
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Digital Optical Encoders

Schematic Diagram Typical Construction

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Encoder

Binary Encoder

Quadrature Encoder

Simple Rotary Encoder

Grey Code Encoder
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Absolute Encoder
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Absolute Encoder (Gray Code)

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Incremental encoder
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Incremental encoder
 LiDAR

Light detection and ranging

(LiDAR) sensor
• Light detection and
ranging (LiDAR) sensors
help to detect the
surrounding and the exact
distance to an object’s
position. It works on the
transmission principle of
pulsed and frequency
modulated wave
LiDAR stands for Light
Detection and Ranging
(sometimes light imaging,
detection, and ranging). It
measures a distance to a
target by illuminating the
target with pulsed laser light
and measuring the reflected
pulses. Differences in laser
return times and
wavelengths can then be
used to identify the
presence of the target.
LD(Laser diode), PD (Photo
diode),TDC( Time to digital Structure and operation of light detection and
converter) ranging (LiDAR) sensor.
Install on planes/helicopter to find digital Ground based LiDAR used in Rock Slope
elevation model. Mapping and Assessment, Archaeology, etc.
 Eddy Current Sensor (Non-contact)
The eddy current type displacement sensors produce a high-frequency magnetic field by
applying a high-frequency current to the coil inside the sensor.
•If there is a measurement object (metal) within this magnetic field, then excess current is
produced around the magnetic flux that passes through the object surface due to the
electromagnetic induction effect. This changes the impedance of the coil within the sensor.
The

The eddy current type displacement

sensors measure the distance based on
the change of the oscillation caused by
this phenomenon.
 Continued…

Applications of Eddy current sensors

Position measurement : It can be applicable in monitoring or sensing the precise location of
an object such as a machine tool.
Vibrating motion measurement: It can be applicable in measuring the distance of the to-
and- fro movement of vibrating instruments/ systems.
• ADVANTAGES
• (i) It is compact in size (ii) Cost is low. (iii)
Reliability is high. (iv) It produces high
frequency response. (v) Sensitivity for small
displacement is high.
• DISADVANTAGES
• (i) The result will be precise only if the gap
between transducer and conductor is
• small. (ii) The device cannot be used for finding
the position of non-conductive
• materials. (iii) There always occurs a non-linear
relationship between distance and
• impedance of the active coil of the device.
• (iv) The device is highly temperature sensitive.
 Hot Wire Anemometer

Hot Wire Anemometer works, When an electrically heated wire

is placed in a flowing gas stream, heat is transferred from the
wire to the gas and hence the temperature of the wire reduces,
and due to this, the resistance of the wire also changes. This
change in resistance of the wire becomes a measure of flow rate.
 Types of Hot Wire Anemometer
• There are two methods of measuring flow rate using a anemometer bridge
combination namely:
• Constant current method
• Constant temperature method
• The hot wire current is held fixed i.e constant voltage is supplied.
• The resistance of the wire responds to change in the velocity V.
 Hot Wire Anemometer (Constant Temperature)
• The principle in this method is to
maintain the temperature and
resistance of the sensing wire at a
constant level.
• Due to the heat transfer takes from
the sensing wire to the flowing gas
during gas flow the temperature
and hence the resistance of the wire
tends to change.
• As a result in order to maintain
these values at initial level, the
current is increased .
• The increase in the electric current
becomes a measure of flow rate of
the gas when calibrated.
• Its main disadvantage is that it can be used
only in clean gas flows.
• Needs to be recalibrated frequently due to
dust accumulation
 Ultrasonic Flow meter
• An ultrasonic flow meter is a type of flow meter that measures the
velocity of a fluid with ultrasound to calculate volume flow.
• Using ultrasonic sensor, the flow meter can measure the average
velocity along the path of an emitted beam of ultrasound and then
averaging the difference in measured transit time between the pulses
of ultrasound propagating into and against the direction of the flow.
• Advantages:
– Flexible mountings,
– Process safety and high accuracy
– No moving parts to replace or lubricate so maintenance cost is low ,
– Can be used to measure the flow of slurries and liquids which cause damage
to conventional sensors,
– Can be clamped in pipe with no penetration,
– Can measure high and low pressure.
– The flow of liquid is bidirectional
– The dynamic response of this meter is good.
– The output of this meter is in analog form
• Disadvantage:
– Ultrasonic flow meters are affected by the acoustic properties of the fluid.
– It can be impacted by temperature, density, viscosity and suspended
particulates depending on the exact flow meter.
– It is expensive as compared with other mechanical flow meters.
– Design of this meter is complex
– It doesn’t work once the pipe contains holes or bubbles in it
– Can’t measure cement/concrete pipe .
Applications:
• These meters are suitable in the applications
of wastewater .
• This type of flow meter is ideal for the
applications wherever chemical compatibility,
low maintenance, and low-pressure drop are
required.
 Temperature measurement

• Pyrometer
• Infrared Thermometer
 Pyrometer
• The basic principle of the pyrometer is, it measures the object's
temperature by sensing the heat/radiation emitted from the object
without making contact with the object. It records the temperature
level depending upon the intensity of radiation emitted.
• Two types: Infrared / Radiation Pyrometer and Optical Pyrometer

Infrared pyrometers are made up of pyroelectric materials like polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
triglycine sulfate (TGS), and lithium tantalate (LiTaO3).
The advantages of pyrometer are
• It can measure the temperature of the object without any
contact with the object. This is called Non-contact
measurement.
• It has a fast response time
• Good stability while measuring the temperature of the
object.
• It can measure different types of object’s temperature at
variable distances.
The disadvantages of pyrometer are
• Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive
• Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different
conditions like dust, smoke, and thermal radiation.
Advantages of Optical Pyrometer
• The optical pyrometer has high accuracy.
• The temperature is measured without contacting the heated
body.
• Because of this property, the pyrometer is used for the number
of applications.
Disadvantages of Optical Pyrometer
• The working of the pyrometer depends on the intensity of light
emitted by the heated body. Thereby, the pyrometer is used for
measuring the temperature having a temperature more than
700-degree Celsius.
• The accuracy of the pyrometer depends on the adjustment of
the filament current.
• Also, the pyrometer is not used for measuring the temperature
of clean gases.
Applications Pyrometers are used in different
applications such as,
• To measure the temperature of moving objects
or constant objects from a greater distance.
• In metallurgy industries
• In melting industries
• Steam boilers to measure steam temperature
• To measure the temperature of liquid metals
and highly heated materials.
• To measure furnace temperature.
December 19, 2023 45

Proximity sensors
• Proximity sensors:-
– Optical,
– Inductive,
– Capacitive;
December 19, 2023 46

Proximity sensors
• Proximity sensors change its
state or generate analog
signal when any object
comes into proximity of the
sensor.
• Often proximity sensors are
of non-contact type.
• They use magnetic,
electrical capacitance,
inductance or eddy current
methods.

Photo emitter-detector pair

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Optical (photo emitter-detector pair)

• Here interruption or reflection of a beam of light is used to

detect an object in a non-contact manner.
• In opposed and retro-reflective mode the object interrupts
the beam; and in proximity mode object reflects the beam.
December 19, 2023 48

Inductive Proximity sensors

• used in detecting metal target object
• uses an electro-magnetic field to detect a conductive
target
• sensing coil in the end of the sensor probe
• when excited creates an alternating magnetic field
which induces small amounts of eddy current in the
target object
• eddy currents create an opposing magnetic field which
resists the field being generated by the sensor probe
coil.
• The interaction of the magnetic fields is dependent on
the distance between the sensor probe and the target.
• Comparatively inexpensive but conducting targets
sensing
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Inductive Proximity sensors

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Capacitive Proximity sensors

• the sensing surface of the sensor’s probe is the
electrified plate.
• The sensor electronics continually changes the
voltage on the probe surface
• The amount of current required change this
voltage is measured which indicates the amount
of capacitance distance between the probe and
target.
• Can be used for nonmetallic materials such as
paper, glass, liquids, and cloth
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Capacitive Proximity sensors

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Force/Pressure Sensor
• Stress measurement using strain
– Hook’s law within elastic limits
• Strain is change in length (dl) per unit length
(l)
l dl
December 19, 2023 53

Strain gauge principle

• Gauge Factor of the strain gauge is given as
R/R R/R
GF  
L/L 

• The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is

typically around 2
• In practice, the strain measurements rarely
involve quantities larger than a few millistrain
(e.g. x 10-3).
December 19, 2023 54

Strain gauge principle

• Therefore, to measure the strain requires
accurate measurement of very small changes in
resistance.
• For example, suppose a test specimen
undergoes a strain of 500 10-6.
• A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 will
exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only 2
(500 x 10-6).
• For a 120 Ω gauge, this is a change of only 0.12
Ω.
December 19, 2023 55

Strain gauges types

• Metal Strain gauges
• Semiconductor strain gauges
 December 19, 2023 56

Foil Strain Gauge

• Long length to
provide high
resistance
• ‘Unidirectional’
• Mounted on paper
Typically available in 60, 120, 240, backing & bonded
350, 500 & 1000Ω values.
using epoxy the
Most common is 120Ω elements
December 19, 2023 57

Wheatstone Bridge
• To measure such small changes in
resistance, strain gauges are
almost always used in a bridge
configuration with a voltage
excitation source. The general
Wheatstone bridge, illustrated
beside, consists of four resistive
arms with an excitation voltage,
VEX, that is applied across the The output voltage of the bridge,
bridge. VO, will be equal to:
December 19, 2023 58

Quarter Bridge Circuit

• If we replace R4 in above Figure
with an active strain gauge, any
changes in the strain gauge
resistance will unbalance the
bridge and produce a nonzero
output voltage. If the nominal
resistance of the strain gauge is
designated as RG, then the strain-
induced change in resistance, DR,
can be expressed as DR =
RG*GF*ε. Assuming that R1 = R2
and R3 = RG, the bridge equation
above can be rewritten to express
VO/VEX as a function of strain.
December 19, 2023 59

Effect of Temperature
• Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge to
change only in response to applied strain. However, strain
gauge material, as well as the specimen material to which the
gauge is applied, will also respond to changes in temperature.
Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to
temperature by processing the gauge material to compensate
for the thermal expansion of the specimen material;
compensated gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do
not totally remove it.
December 19, 2023 60

Temperature compensation
By using two strain gauges
• One gauge is active, and a second gauge
is placed transverse to the applied strain.
• The strain has little effect on the second
gauge, called the dummy gauge.
• Because the temperature changes are
identical in the two gauges, the ratio of
their resistance does not change, the
voltage VO does not change, and the
effects of the temperature change are
minimized.
December 19, 2023 61

Lead Wire Resistance

• The equations given above for quarter bridge strain gauge
configurations assume that the lead wire resistance is
negligible.
• Doing so in practice can be a major source of error.
• For example, consider the 2-wire connection of a strain gauge
shown in Figure. Suppose each lead wire connected to the
strain gauge is 15 m long with lead resistance RL equal to 1 Ω.
Therefore, the lead resistance adds 2 W of resistance to that
arm of the bridge.
December 19, 2023 62

Three Wire Method

• Using a 3-wire connection can
eliminate the effects of variable
lead wire resistance because the
lead resistances affect adjacent
legs of the bridge. As seen in
adjacent Figure, changes in lead
wire resistance, RL2, do not
change the ratio of the bridge
legs R3 and RG. Therefore, any
changes in resistance due to
temperature cancel each other.
December 19, 2023 63
December 19, 2023 64

Electromagnetic flow sensor

• Magnetic flow meters operate based upon Faraday's
Law of electromagnetic induction, which states that
a voltage will be induced in a conductor moving
through a magnetic field.
• Faraday's Law: E=kBDV
• The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly
proportional to the velocity of the conductor V,
conductor width D, and the strength of the magnetic
field B.
• magnetic field coils are placed on opposite sides a
pipe to generate a magnetic field.
December 19, 2023 65

Electromagnetic flow sensor

• As the liquid moves through
the field with average
velocity V, electrodes sense
the induced voltage.
• An insulating liner prevents
the signal from shorting to
the pipe wall.
• the output voltage E is
directly proportional to
liquid velocity, resulting in
the linear output of a
magnetic flow meter.
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Servo Motor
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
December 19, 2023 77

Solenoid
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End of Unit 1