ANIMAL NUTRITION II

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY
MEDICINE
UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

Instructor: Emmanuel Atiba (Ph.D)

• Course description
• Animal Nutrition II course is designed to familiarize students
with the nutrient requirements of animals, feed evaluation,
nutrient digestibility, feed manufacturing and processing as
well as ration formulation.
• Knowledge and application of the information covered in
lecture and in assigned reading or work will be evaluated
during exams.
• Class-time discussion will be encouraged.
• Students are advised to attend classes, do all assignments and
take tests and assignments which will be given.
Introduction
• We have studies the different nutrient categories which are
required by the animal body and the metabolic changes which
they undergo in serving its (the bodies) various functions.
• A nutrient is a dietary essential for one or more species of
animals.
• Not all animals have the same nutrient requirements. For
instance, ruminants (cattle, sheep goat, giraffe etc.) have quite
simple nutrient requirements in comparison to non-ruminants
species such as swine, poultry and humans.
• All of the known nutrients are in one of the following
categories: Protein, carbohydrate, lipids, minerals vitamins
and water.
 • Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are the products of photosynthesis in plants.
• With the appropriate enzymes, plant tissues convert carbon
dioxide and water to sugar, using solar energy trapped by
chlorophyll in chloroplasts.
• The basic unit of carbohydrate structure are sugars (glucose).
These are called simple sugar or monosaccharides.
• The main carbohydrates in feed are starch, cellulose and
hemicelluloses.
• Starch is a readily digested carbohydrates stored in plant seeds.
Cereal grains and some root and tubes are high in starch.
• Cellulose and hemicellulose are major components are plant
fibre such as roughages and various agricultural by-products.
 • Protein
• Protein composed of substances called amino acids.
• There are several hundred known amino acids in plants.
• However, only 20 amino acids make up animal protein.
• The essential amino acids must be provided in the diet (in case
of ruminants, are synthesized by microbes in the gut).
• Those that can be synthesized in the animal tissues are
referred to non-essential amino acids because they are non-
essential to the diet.
 • Lipids
• Lipids are the substances in plant and animal tissue that are
soluble in organic solvents likes ether, chloroform etc.
• The lipid content of feeds is measured by extraction with ether
called the ether extraction.
• The principle lipids of importance in animal nutrition are fats
and oils.
• Fats and oils are compose of glycerol and three fatty acids
often called triglycerides (triacylglycerol).
• Fatty acids are of two types: saturated and unsaturated.
• Unsaturated fatty acids may be monounsaturated or
polyunsaturated.
 • Minerals
• Various mineral elements are dietary essentials for animals.
• Some of them are required in relatively large quantities
referred to as macroelements or macrominerals.
• Others are needed in very small amount and are termed as
the trace elements or microelements.
• Macroelements generally function as components of the
tissue structure e.g. bone, whereas trace elements function as
activators or cofactors of enzymes.
 • Vitamins
• A vitamin is defined as an organic nutrient.
• It is required in extremely small quantities in the diet; it is
essential for normal metabolism.
• Vitamins cannot normal be synthesized in the animal body and
therefore, is dietary essential.
• There are few exception to the last characteristic of a vitamin:
vitamin D, niacin and vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
• Vitamins, like minerals can be classified into two groups:
a) fat soluble and
b) water soluble.
• Fat soluble vitamins are stored in fatty tissues of the body and
are poorly excreted.
• In contrast, water soluble vitamins (except vitamin B12) are
readily excreted .
• With exception of vitamin C, the water soluble vitamins are
also referred to as the B-complex vitamin.
Water
• Water is regarded by many nutritionists as the most important
nutrient.
• Water does not totally fit the definition of nutrient because it
is not required in the diet but is usually consumed separately.

• Therefore, a knowledge of the quantitative needs of the body

for these nutrients and of the relative value of feeds as
sources of them is the basis of scientific feeding.
• This knowledge has been gained gradually by means of
research and experiments over many years.
• An understanding of method by which it has been attained
and which are still being employed to augment it is essential
for the student of
Animal feed and feedstuffs

Definitions:
• Animal is derived from Latin animalis meaning having “breath”
or soul and living being.
• Feed is an edible material that contains nutrient
• Feedstuff is any material used for feed
CONCENTRATES
Concentrate is a feed or feed mixture which supplies primary
nutrient at higher level
Energy Rich Concentrates
• These include the followings
• Grains and seeds
• Milling by-products
• Molasses
• Roots and tubers
Grains and seeds
1. Maize (Zea mays)
• Synonym: Corn
• Maize is world’s most important
grain
• Dent corn is the primary type
grown as food

Nutritive value
• Maize contains 70% starch, 85-
90% TDN, 4% oil and 8-12%
protein
Deleterious factor
• No toxin.
2 ． Sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor)
• Sorghum resembles maize
but is more drought resistant
Nutritive value
• Sorghum contains 65%
starch, 80-85% TDN, 2-3% oil,
and 8-12% protein.
Deleterious factor
• Polyphenolic compound
(Condensed tannins)
3 ． Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
• Wheat is the world’s most
important crop grown primary
for human consumption

Nutritive value
• Wheat contains 75-80% TDN
and 8-14% crude protein.
• Wheat is superior to maize in
protein content and quality.
Deleterious factor
• No toxin
4 ． Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
• Barley is grown in Europe and
dry climates of Asia
Nutritive value
• The crude protein content of
Barley varies from 11-16%
and TDN 78-80%.
• Lipid content of barley is low;
usually less than 2.5%.
Deleterious factor
• No toxin
5. Oat (Avena sativa)
Oat is a minor grain and is likely
to become less important as a
feedstuff

Nutritive value
• It is a feed of choice for
feeding horses and ruminants,
• The protein content ranges
from 8-12%, TDN 70-73% and
oil content is higher than 5%.
6. Rice (Oryza sativa)
• Rice is a major food grain in tropic
countries
• It is a good sources of energy but
seldom used
Nutritive value
• Unprocessed rough rice contains
about 8-10% crude protein, 9%
crude fibre, 2% oil and 6.5% ash.
The TDN content varies from 78-
82%.
Deleterious factor
• Alkyl, ergot, pectin, pentosans and
glucans
7. Rye (Secale cereale)
• Rye is the most tolerant grain of
adverse conditions but rare
used as feed
Nutritive value
• Rye grain is very similar to
wheat in composition.
• Protein contents ranges from
10-14% and TDN 75-80%.
Deleterious factors
• Alkyl, resorcinol, ergot, pectins,
pentosans and glucans
8. Millet
• Traditional viewed as poor
person’s crop, lack prestige
and appeal
Nutritive value
• The crude protein content
ranges from 10-12%, oil
content 2-5% and crude
fibre 2-9%.
• The TDN content varies from
75-85%.
Milling by-products
1. Wheat bran
• Wheat bran consists of outer
layer of seed with some flour
• Palatable and can prevent
constipation

Nutritive value
• The crude protein ranges from
13-16% and TDN from 65-70%.
• The bran has amino acid
balance superior to that of
wheat.
• The phosphorus content is high
and calcium is low.
2. Rice bran de-oiled
• Consists of fibrous outer layer
of grain, hull, chipped grain
and calcium carbonate
Nutritive value
• The crude protein ranges
from 13-16% and TDN from
55-65%.
• It is a good source of protein,
vitamins and minerals.
Deleterious factors
• Silica
3. Rice polish/raw rice bran
• Is a by-product of rice
Nutritive value
• The oil content 13-19%,
crude protein 13-16% and
TDN from 70-90%
• The phosphorus content is
high 1.3% and calcium
content is low.
Deleterious factors
• Lipoxidase
Barley by-products
1. Brewer’s grain
• Is the material that remains
after grains have been
fermented during beer making
process

Nutritive value
• Dried brewer’s grains contain
27-30% protein and 65% TDN.
• They are excellent source of
bypass protein.
• Dried brewer’s grain has a
good amino acid, minerals and
B-vitamin contents.
Molasses
1. Cane molasses
• Cane molasses is a by-product
during manufacture of sugar
Nutritive value
• The crude protein is 1-2% and
TDN is 55-60%.
• It is excellent source of other
minerals but low in
phosphorus content.
• Molasses is rich in niacin and
pantothenic acid.
Deleterious factors
• Butyrate (neurological defects)
2. Beet molasses
• Beet molasses is a by-product
during manufacture of sugar
from sugar beet
Nutritive value
• The crude protein ranges
from 6-10% and TDN 65-75%.
• Beet molasses have high
mineral content.
Roots and Tubers
1. Roots
1.1 Turnips (Brassica rapa)
• Turnip is root vegetable
grown in temperate climate
Nutritive value
• The dry matter, CP and TDN
contents of turnip are 8-10%,
12-13% and 75-80%,
respectively.
Deleterious factors
• Volatile compound
1.2 Fodder beet
• Popular feed in Denmark
and Netherland for cattle
Nutritive value
• Fodder beet is a poor
source of protein (less than
7%).
• Dry matter content ranges
from 14-22%.
Deleterious factors
• Oxalic acid
1.3 Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris)
• Grown for commercial
production though it
sometimes given to animal
Nutritive value
• The protein content varies
from 10-15% and TDN 55-
65%.
• Dry matter content ranges
from 14-25%.
Deleterious factors
• Oxalic acid
2. Tubers
2.1 Cassava root (Manihot
esculenta)
• Cassava is perennial shrub
cultivated in tropic and sub
tropic regions
Nutritive value
• It is rich in carbohydrates
(92%).
• The crude protein content is
2.4% and TDN content is 67%.
Deleterious factors
• Prussic acid
2.2 Potato (Solanum
Tuberosum)
• Surplus and cull potatoes are
suitable for livestock feed
Nutritive value
• The starch is 70%, TDN is 70-
80% and crude protein is 9-
12%.
• Potatoes are poor source of
minerals except potassium
and phosphorus which are
high.
Deleterious factors
• Alkaloid-solanidine
2.3 Sweet potato
• Sweet potato is important
tropical plant grown for
human consumption
Nutritive value
• Low protein, fat and fibre
contents, but high
nitrogen free extract
fraction.
• The carbohydrate content
is 80-90%.
2.4 Carrot (Daucus carota)
• Carrot is an annual biennial
herb of European origin
Nutritive value
• Protein content ranges from
10-15% and TDN from 75-
80%.
• Dry matter content ranges
from 10-20%.
• Carrots have high vitamin A
content.
Protein sources
• Plant proteins
1. Soybean meal (Glycine max)
• Soybean is oilseed crop produced in
largest amounts in world.
Nutritive value
• The CP is 45-55% and TDN is 75-84%.
• Soybean contains all the essential amino
acids but cysteine and methionine are
suboptimal.
• It is better source of calcium and
phosphorus.
Deleterious factors
• Trypsin inhibitors, saponins,
phytoestrogens, glucinins, goitrogen and
lectin
2. Groundnut meal (Arachis
hypogaea)
• Is an important source of
protein
Nutritive value
• The protein content 40-50%
and TDN from 75-85%.
• Groundnut cake has high fibre
but low lysine, methionine,
cysteine, tryptophan, calcium,
carotene and vitamin D.
Deleterious factors
• Antiplasmin, antitrypsin and
aflatoxin
3. Cottonseed meal (Gossypium
arboreum)
• Cotton is widely distributed is
temperate and tropical regions
Nutritive value
• The protein content 22-42% and
78% TDN.
• The fibre content 2-27% and oil
0.9-11.3%.
• Cottonseed cake has high
phosphorus but low lysine content.
Deleterious factors
• Polyphenolic compound (Gossypol)
4. Sunflower meal
• Sunflower is annual or
perennial crop grown for oil
production
Nutritive value
• The TDN and CP contents of
sunflower meal are 65 and
30%, respectively.
• Sunflower meal is rich in
methionine
Deleterious factor
• Chlorogenic acid
5. Sesame meal (Sesamum
indicum)
• Sesame is mainly grown for oil
production
Nutritive value
• The TDN and CP contents of
sesame meal are 70-75% and
40-50-%, respectively.
• Sesame meal is rich in leucine,
arginine and methionine but
low in lysine.
ROUGHAGES
Dry Roughages
1. Hay
• The aim in hay making is to
reduce the moisture content
of the green crop up to 15-
20% to inhibit the action of
plant and microbial enzymes.
• Thus, a green crop in a mature
stage is preserved for a long
time.
Green roughages
1 Cowpea, lobia (Vigna
unguiculata)
Nutritive value
• The fresh cowpea leaves and
stalks contain 18% crude
protein, 3% oil and 27% crude
fibre.
• The TDN is 59% in early and
58% in mature cowpea fodder.
• Calcium and phosphorus
contents are 1.4 and 0.35%,
respectively.
2. Sorghum
Nutritive value
• Sorghums contain 4-5%
protein, 58% TDN.
• Some varieties, however,
contain 8-10% protein like
S. almum.
• The calcium and
phosphorus contents are
0.5 and 0.2%, respectively.
3. Maize (Zea Mays)
Nutritive value
• Maize is a good source of
carbohydrates.
• The green fodder is
particular suitable for silage
making.
• It contains 8-10% protein
and 60% TDN.
4. Pearl millet
Nutritive value
• Pearl millet is a good fodder.
• The fresh and mature pearl
millet contain 2.3% crude
protein and 36% crude
fibre.
5. Napier grass (Pennisetum
purpureum)
Nutritive value
• Napier grass contains 8-
12% crude protein, 26-28%
crude fibre and 55-58%
TDN.
• It is also used as silage
6. Rhodes grass (Chloris
gayana)
Nutritive value
• Rhodes grass contains 8-
10% protein, 32% crude
fibre and 55% TDN.
 7. Sudan grass (Sorghum
vulgare)
Nutritive value
• Sudan grass contains 6-
8% crude protein and 50-
60% TDN.
Straw
• Due to unavailability of high quality dry roughage, straw form
a major bulk of livestock feed worldwide.
Cereal straw
• Maize, sorghum and wheat straws are by-products available
after harvesting grains, form the main bulk of roughage in
tropical regions.
• They contain about 3% protein and 40-45% TDN. Straws form
staple feed for cattle and small ruminants
• Groundnut Straw
• Groundnut is the major oilseed produced worldwide.
• At the time of harvesting, large quantity of leaves and stem
become available for feeding livestock.
• The DCP and TDN are superior to most non-leguminous hays
Husks
Coffee husk
• Coffee husk is not palatable to
cattle and they can form a small
portion of ration
• Under acute scarcity conditions,
the cattle can consume this feed
• Coffee husk contain 7-8% CP,
NDF and ADF contents are 60
and 49%, respectively.
• Calcium and phosphorus
contents are 0.51 and 0.25%,
respectively.
Rice husk
• Rice husk is the dry outer
covering of rice grain which
is removed during the
milling of rice
Nutritive value
• Rice husk contains 2.9-3.6%
CP, 0.8-2% EE, 39-42% CF
and 15-22% ash.
Groundnut husk
• Groundnut husk is unpalatable
to cattle and poorer in nutritive
value than rice husk and coffee
husk.
• Milling of this by-product and
adding molasses and urea may
improve its palatability
Maize husk
• Maize husk is superior to groundnut husk in its nutritive value.
• About 50% of the roughage portion in the ration can be
replaced by this product
Stover
• Crop residues are important resources and increased ruminant
production can be accomplished through improved utilization
of the crop residues
• Stovers are the mature cured stalks from grain crops, typically
corn or sorghum
• These stovers are poor in nutritive value
Techniques used in evaluating
feed
• Utilization of feedstuffs in animal feeding necessitates
knowledge of their compositions, the digestibility of
nutrient, their ability to provide energy, presence of
inhibitors or toxins and the need for processing to
improve palatability or nutrient availability
Techniques of feed evaluation include the
followings:
Feed microscopy
• Feed microscopy is the technique of evaluating feed
sample with a microscope for the purpose of identifying
the components
• It confirms or denies the listed ingredients
• Feed microscopist may be able to identify them by histological
structure
• Feed microscopy is mainly used for regulatory purposes.
Feed Analysis
• Standard chemical method of feed analysis is called
proximate analysis
• It involves chemical techniques designed to differentiate
nutrient components from non-nutrient materials
• Components of proximate analysis include dry matter, crude
protein, ether extract (EE), ash, crude fibre (CF), and nitrogen
free extract (NFE).
Dry matter determination
• Involves drying feed sample in an oven to constant weight
• Dry matter determination is important for following reasons:
1. Some feed (e.g. green, silage etc.) have high moisture
content. Their quality and value depend upon how much of
their actually weight is made up of water
2. Feed analyses are performed on the dried sample
Conversion from a dry matter
to an as-is basis
• To convert value from a dry-matter basis to a wet-weight or as-
is basis:
• Example: On a dry matter basis, an alfalfa sample contains
16.5% crude protein. The dry matter content is 92%. The
protein content on an as-is basis is 16.5*(92/100) = 15.2%
• To convert from a wet-weight to a dry-weight basis:
• Example: A barley sample contains 11.2% crude protein on
wet-weight basis and contains 96% dry matter. The protein
content on dry-matter basis is 11.2*(100/96) = 11.7%
• Crude protein (Kjeldahl analysis): Crude protein (CP) is
defined as the nitrogen content of the feed multiplied by a
factor of 6.25.
• Nitrogen is measured by Kjeldahl procedure (Danish chemist)
• Ether Extract: The fat content of feeds is determined by
extracting a feed sample with ether
• Ash: Total mineral content is measured by burning the feed
sample in a muffle furnace at 600°C. This combusts all organic
matter leaving a residue of ash or inorganic mineral salts.
• Crude fiber: The crude fiber content is measured by boiling an
ether extracted feed sample in dilute acid, then in dilute alkali,
drying, and burning a muffle furnace. The difference in weight
before and after burning is the crude fiber fraction.
• Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE): NFE is derived by subtracting the
sum of the other proximate components from 100:
• %NFE = 100 = %(water +CP + EE + ash + CF).
• Determination of Specific Nutrients
• Amino acids are measured by column chromatography (amino
acid autoanalyzer)
• Calcium, phosphorus, copper and zinc are measured by
spectrophotometric procedures
• Vitamins are measure by High performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC).
• NB: These nutrients are not usually measured on a routine
basis because the determinations are expensive
• Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy:
• The feed sample is exposed to infrared radiation and the
reflectance of the radiation by the sample is measured.
Estimation of Feed Energy
• Feed energy is expressed in calorie or in joule
• 1 calorie = the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree centigrade
• 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1000 calories
• 1 mega calorie (Mcal) = 1000 kilocalories
• 1 calorie = 4.184 joules
• 1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kilojoule (KJ)
• Calorie content is determined in bomb calorimeter by burning
the feed sample
• When a feed sample is burned in bomb calorimeter, its gross
energy is determined
• To determine fractions of gross energy, a metabolic trial must
be conducted to account for losses
• Digestible energy (DE) = Gross energy (GE) – fecal energy
• Metabolizable energy (ME) = DE – (urinary energy + rumen
gas losses)
• Net energy (NE) = ME – heat loss
• Total digestible nutrient = %CP + 2.25 (digestible ether
extract) + % digestible CF + digestible NFE
Evaluation of feeds by Digestibility
Experiments
Measurements of Digestibility Coefficients
• Chemical composition of feed and fodders gives only the
potential value of the feed and it does not give the actual
nutritive value
• Major portion of the nutrients are excreted in faece.
• Therefore, the first consideration is the digestibility of the feed
• The digestibility is defined as the portion of feed or single
nutrient of feed which is not recovered in faeces
• When the digestibility is expressed in percentage it is known
as digestibility coefficient.
• Dig. coe. = Amount of the nutrient in feed eaten – Amount of the nutrient in faeces x 100
Amount of the nutrient in feed eaten

Example 1: A bullock consumed 10 kg grass hay and

excreted 4 kg of dung dry matter. Moisture content of
the hay was 10% calculate the dig. Coe. of DM of the
grass hay.
• Solution: Grass hay consumed = 10 kg: moisture = 10%,
DM = 90%
• DM of grass hay consumed = 10 x 0.9 = 9 kg
• Dung DM excreted = 4 kg
• Dig. coe. of DM = 9.0 – 4.0 x 100 = 55.6
• 9.0
 • Digestibility coefficients are estimated for all organic nutrients.
• For minerals, digestibility is not determined because:
I. It does not contribute to the energy content of feed.
II. Most of the absorbed minerals are excreted through the gut.
Methods of Determining Digestibility.
• In vivo method (Direct and indirect).
• In sacco method/semi-in vivo method
• In vitro method
• NB: In vivo method includes digestion and metabolism
Indicator Method of Determining
Digestibility
• Dig. coe. of nutrient = 100 – (100 x % of indicator in feed x % nutrient in the faeces)
% of indicators in faece % nutrient in the feed

Example. A grazing animal was fed 2 g of Cr2O3 in a capsule per day. Find out the forage intake and its
DM digestibility. The data is as follows:
• Solution:
Factor affecting digestibility
Feed Composition
• Digestibility of feed is related to its chemical composition
Ration composition
• Feed digestibility is influenced by composition of other feed
consumed with it
Feed processing
• Feeds are processed before feeding to increase and optimize
their digestibility.
Enzyme supplementation
• In non-ruminants, the digestive system is ill-equipped to deal
with some feed.
Animal Factors
• The most important animal factor affecting digestibility is
animal species.
Level of feeding
• An increase in the quantity of feed consumed by an animal
generally causes increase in the rate passage of digesta.
Energy content of feeds
• Most organic component in feed are required for synthesis of
body tissues and animal products (milk and egg).
• They are also needed as sources of energy to support work
done
• Both involve transfer of energy from one form to another e.g.
chemical energy is converted into mechanical or heat energy
Demand for energy
• An animal requires energy for maintenance and production
• Energy requires for maintenance represents energy requires
for vital body process (beating of the heart, movement of
dissolved substance, synthesis of enzymes and hormones)
• Energy supplied of feed in excess of maintenance requirement
is used for production
• In pregnant and lactating animals, energy is stored in the
products of conception and in milk constituents.
• Other forms of production include the energy required for
exercise, synthesis of wool and eggs.
Supply of energy
Gross energy (GE)
• Energy is stored in chemical components of feed as chemical
energy
• The amount of chemical energy in feed is measured by
converting it to heat and determining the heat production
• The amount of heat arising from complete oxidation of a unit
weight of feed is known as its gross energy.
• Carbohydrates have GE content of 17.5 MJ/kg DM
• Fats have GE of 39.0 MJ/kg DM
• Most common feeds have a GE content of 18.4 MJ/kg DM
Digestible energy (DE)
• Digestible energy represents energy absorbed by animal
• Apparent digestible energy is calculated as GE provided by a
unit of feed minus the GE content of the feces
• Example: The sheep consumed 1.63 kg hay and excreted 0.76
kg fecal DM. If we assume that The GE content of the hay and
the feces, determined by bomb calorimetry, were 18.0 MJ/kg
DM and 18.7 MJ/kg DM, respectively.
Solution:
• The total GE intake would be 29.3 MJ/day and the total GE
output would be 14.2 MJ/day.
• The apparent GE digestibility = 29.3 – 14.2/29.3 = 0.515
• DE = 18.0*0.515 = 9.3 MJ/kg DM
Metabolizable energy (ME)
• In addition to energy lost in feces, energy is also lost as
energy-containing compound in urine and as combustible
gases (methane)
• Metabolizable energy represents energy available for use by
animal
• The energy lost in urine is present as nitrogen-containing
compound (urea, hippuric acid, creatine and allantoin)
• The combustible gases consist almost of methane (CH4)
• Methane production at maintenance level approximately 7-9
% of the GE of the food (11-13 % DE) is lost as methane
• Methane production can not be easily measured directly, it
can be estimated as 8% of GE
• ME value of ruminant feed can be calculated also from
their DE value by multiplying by 0.81
• This implies that, 19% of the energy apparently is
excreted in urine and methane
Heat increment of feeds
• The ingestion of food by an animal is followed by losses
of energy not only as chemical energy of its solid, liquid
and gaseous excreta but also as heat
• Animals produce and loss heat to their surroundings
either directly by radiation, conduction and convection
or indirectly by evaporation
• Heat increment may be expressed in absolute terms (MJ/kg
DM) or relatively as a proportion of either GE or ME
Net energy and energy retention
• Subtraction of the heat increment of a food from its ME
value gives the net energy value of a food
• The NE value of a food is the energy that is available to
the animal for useful purposes (maintenance, production
etc.)
Evaluation of feeds protein
• Protein are made up of amino acids
• Amino acids are classified into:
 Essential (indispensable) amino acids
 Non-essential (dispensable) amino acids
Crude Protein
• Most of the nitrogen required by the animal is used for protein
synthesis
• Most of the food nitrogen is present as protein
• Chemically, the protein content of a feed is calculated from its
nitrogen content
• CP (g/kg) = gN/kg*1000/160
• Protein requirement of farm animal is expressed as N x 6.25

Digestible Protein
• The digestible protein in a feed may be determined by
digestibility trial in which nitrogen intake is measured along
with nitrogen voided in the feces
• Digestibility coefficient based on collection and analysis of
digesta from the terminal ileum give a more accurate measure
of the nitrogen absorbed
• For pigs and poultry, amino acids supply rather than protein is
considered, and ileal digestibility rather than whole-tract
digestibility is used.
• Therefore, endogenous amino acids are calculated as sum of
basal amino acid loss (BAA) and specific endogenous amino
acids (SAA)
• Standardized ileal digestibility (SID) is calculated as follow
•
Measure of Protein Quality for
Monogastric animal
• Difference methods such as the protein ratio (PER), the net
protein retention (NPR) and the gross protein value (GPV) have
been used to evaluate protein based on growth response of
animal
• Protein efficiency ratio:
• Net protein retention
• Gross protein value:
Diet formulation
• The objectives of diet formulation are to design diet to meet
the animal’s nutrient requirements and provide the optimum
economic return to the livestock producer.
• Information needed to formulate Diet
1) Nutrient requirements of the animal
2) Nutrient composition of feedstuff
3) Nutrient availability
4) Non-nutrient characteristics of the feedstuff
5) Cost of the available feedstuff
6) Expected daily feed intake
Mathematic of Diet Formulation
• Diet may be formulated by hand or computer.
• Formulation by hand refers to making simple algebraic
calculation
• In hand calculation of diet formulae, select the main energy
and protein sources.
• After the two major ingredients are selected, the quantity of
each is calculated.
• The basic steps in hand formulation of diet are as follows:
1. Select the main sources of energy and protein.
2. Decide how much slack space is needed. Assume that slack
space is 2.5 percent.
3. Therefore, the corn and soybean meal will be 97.5 percent.
4. Look up the requirement for crude protein e.g. 15% CP
5. To perform this calculation, we need to know the percent of
CP of corn and soybean. Assume that these are 8.5 and 44
percent, respectively.
• Example 1. Algebraic solution
 For 100 lb of mixed feed:
 Let amount of corn = x lb
 Then amount of soybean = 97.5 – x
 lb corn protein = 0.085x
 lb soybean meal (SBM) protein = 0.44 (97.5 – x)
 lb corn protein + lb SBM protein = 15
 0.085x + 0.44 (97.5 – x) = 15
 0.085x + 42.9 – 0.44x = 15
 Multiply both sides by -1
 -0.085x – 42.9 + 0.44x = -15
 0.44x – 0.085x = -15 + 42.9
 0.355x = 27.9
 X = 78.59
 97.5 – x = 18.91
• Check the calculation:
 78.59 lb corn @ 8.5% CP = 6.68
 18.91 lb SBM @ 44% CP = 8.32
Total percentage 15.00
• Example 2. Rather than using the preceding algebraic equation, the
Pearson’s square can be used.
• % CP of SBM = 44
• % CP of corn = 8.5
• % CP desired in ration = 15

• CP of SBM, 44% 6.5 parts SBM

15
• CP of corn, 8.5% 29 parts corn
35.5 total parts

• % SBM = (6.5/35.5) x 100 = 18.3

• % corn = (29/35.5) x 100 = 81.7
Total percentage = 100.0
• Example 3. When more than two ingredients are involved in
formulating diet, grain like maize (8.8% CP)and oats (11.7% CP)
are used in a 2:1 ratio to circumvent the higher crude fibre
level of oats.
• Formulate diet using maize, oats and protein supplement.
• Procedure:
 Draw a square
 Place the % CP desired (14.0) in the middle of the square
 The average % of protein in the maize and oats must then be
calculated as followed
• 2 x 8.8 = 17.6
• 1 x 11.7 = 11.7
29.3/3 = 9.77 %
• Example 4. In formulating concentrating mixture for
ruminants’ urea is added at 1 %, molasses at 10 % to reduce
the cost of the feed.
• Formulate a 14 % CP concentrate mixture using 20 parts of
oats (11.7 %CP), 3 parts of minerals vitamin supplement and
maize and soybean.
• Procedure:
 Calculate the CP contribute by 20 kg oats in a 100 kg mixture
and this is the CP contribute by 23 kg since the mineral and
vitamin supplements do not contribute any protein
• 20 x 0.117 = 2.34 kg
• 100 – 23 = 77 kg of maize and soybean meal supplement the
remaining, i.e. 14.00 – 2.34 = 11.66 kg
 Calculate what % of protein will be needed in the maize (8.8
%) and soybean meal (45.8 %) combination to provide 11.66
kg of protein per 100 kg
• 11.66/77 x 100 = 15.14 %
 • Final ration
Oats = 20.00
Mineral and vitamins = 3.00
Maize = 63.81
Soybean meal = 13.19
100.00
Processing Methods of Animal
Feedstuffs
• Animal feed technology: Application of physical, chemical,
biochemical, biological, physiochemical and engineering
method to increase the nutrient utilization of feeds and fodder
in animal system for development of livestock and feed
industry.
• Objectives of feed processing:
1. To make feed more palatable
2. To detoxify undesirable ingredient
3. To make storage easy and safe
4. To increase nutrient content and nutrient availability
5. To change particle size or feed density
6. To make animal production more economical
Roughage/Grain Processing
Methods
• All methods are broadly divided into two groups i.e. Dry
processing and wet processing methods.
1, Cold processing method
• It includes cracking, drying rolling, grinding, crimping,
crumbling, extrusion, water soaking, reconstitution and
decortication
2. Hot Processing method
• Includes steam rolling, steam flaking, pressure cooking,
exploding gelatinization, popping, pelleting, roasting and
micronizing
Dry processing
• Baling: Forage is cut and dried in field. Dried forage is then
baled or bundled. It makes storage and handling easy
• Chopping: Known as chaffing. Forages are chopped into small
piece. Chopping avoids selective feeding thus wastage of plant
• Grinding: It is a process of particles size reduction. Grinding of
roughage improves feed consumption and growth rate
Advantages of grinding
• It is prerequisite for mixing, pelleting or extrusion
• Increases surface area of grain
• Avoids selective feeding
• Increases compactness and reduces space for storage
• Crimping: The process of rolling of feed ingredient with
corrugated rollers called crimping. It includes conditioning and
cooling of the processed feed.
• Crumbles: The feed of granular particles size produced from
grinding of pelleted feed.
• Micronizing: The popping of grains with application of infrared
heat energy.
• Roasting: Treatment of grain with direct flame is called
roasting. It causes expansion in volume due to heating and
generally increases digestibility
• Popping/puffing: It is produced by the action of dry heat (370-
425° C) for 15-30 sec. causing expansion of grain which
rupture the endosperm and makes starch granules available to
animals
• Dehydration: It is a process of reduction of moisture content
in a dehydrator using a temperature 600-1500° F for 3-5
minutes. The forage retains DM and CP but losses carotene
• Cubing: A process of cub making. It increases the density of
roughage. The good quality hay is sprayed with water to
increase moisture (14%) and broken down rather than to grind
Wet Processing
• Soaking: Grains are soaked in water for 6-24 hrs. It softens the
grains, which swells during the process and thus palatable
product is made.
• Reconstitution: It is similar to soaking water is added to
mature dry grain to raise the moisture content (25-30%) and
stored the grain in an oxygen limited silo (14-21 days) prior to
feeding.
• Steaming rolling: The grain is subjected to live steam for
different time depends upon the pressure used prior to rolling.
• Steam flaking: Steam treatment is given for 15-30 minutes
due to which moisture content in the grains rises to 18-20%.
After rolling of such grains, flakes are produced.
• Pressure cooking and flaking: The grains are first cooked
under steam pressure, cooled and then rolled.
• Extrusion: A process of cooking in which feeds are expanded
by the application of adequate pressure. The purpose of
extrusion is the gelatinization of starch in grains.
• Exploding: A process of swelling of
steam treated grains under high
pressure for 20 minutes followed by
sudden decrease to atmospheric
pressure. It is done in steel vessel
fitted with valve for injecting steam to
raise pressure inside the grain.
• Pelleting: The process of densification
of ground grain with or without the
application of steam or moisture. The
ground feed material is forced to pass
through the holes of specific size by a
mechanic process (Pelleting machine)
• Gelatinization: Complete disintegration of kernels into
particles with the application of pressure by moving rollers. It
is done by breaking and crushing of the grains.
Silage Making
• Several methods have been used to
conserve animal feed for those times
when there is less feed available.
• The process of silage making include
cutting fresh fodder, compacting it
and storing and fermenting it under
controlled conditions in a silo
• Common feedstuffs use for making
silage: Fresh grass; legumes,
fodders(Maize, millet, oats, rye,
wheat, sorghum etc.); crop residues
including fruit residues
Steps in silage making
1. Preparation (choose land and fodder)
2. Determine the amount of silage
3. Build the silo
4. Harvest and chop the forage
5. Dry the forage the correct moisture
6. Fill the silo and compact the silage
7. Seal the silo
Choose silage ingredient
• Choose green forage crops with high yield and high nutritional
value
• Avoid ingredient which herbicide or pesticide have been
recently used
Determine the amount of silage
required
• Amount of silage required depends on the following factors:
• Number and type of livestock
• Length of feeding period
• Percentage of silage in ration
• Water content
• Losses in percentage
• Density of the silage
• Example:
• One cow
• Feeding period 90 days
• 50% of the total ration of 40 kg
• 75% water content for silage
• 15% losses
• Density of 0.8 metric tons/meter cubic
• 1*(0.5*40)*90 =1800 kg feed
• There are 15% losses
• 1.15*1800 kg = 2070 kg
• Silo space: Density of 400 kg per meter cubic; 2070/400 = 5.2
meter cubic
• For 10 cows at 50% of the feed for 90 days:
• 10*2070 kg = 20700 kg
• 10*5.2 = 52 meter cubic of silage space
Building/constructing silo
• The silos include stack, trench
and bunker silos; sometime
small container or bag can be
used
Stack silos
• Stack silos are without wall and
do not require permanent
construction.
• However, they are most prone
to damage to covering
material
• It has low cost of investment
but requires greater area
Trench silo
• Trench silos are underground
bunker silos
• Make sure that these trench
silos have sufficient drainage
• A sloping floor will always assist
with drainage
• Trench silos are easier and
cheaper to construct
Bunker silos
• A bunker silo is silo with walls
but open at the top.
• Digging a ditch around the base
of wall and adding drainage to
avoid water damage
• Sloping floor will also assist with
drainage
• A bunker silo is easier feed out,
less spoilage and easy filling
• However, it requires significant
investment
Siting of silo
• Bunker or stack should be built on firm base away from
hedges, trees, water sources, residential areas and major drain

Size and number of silo

• To calculate the size of size of silo required to determine
how much silage is needed, estimate around 400 kg DM
per cubic meter
• Consider using several silos and it is recommended that
not all silage be kept in one silo
Harvesting and Chopping
Harvesting time
• The quality of forage depends on season.
• Legumes and grass be harvested when
legumes bloom
• Grass should be harvested at 20-30 cm
tall
• Mow in the afternoon
• Mow at 5-6 cm above ground
• Shake the grass two or three times a day
• Dry the grass until 30% DM
• Rake the grass
• Collect and transport the grass to silo
Moisture levels

Hand method
1. Take a handful of chopped forage
2. Squeeze it into a ball for 20-30 secs.
3. Release
Microwave method

• Take a sample
• Ground/cut it into 2.5 cm
• Place the paper towel on plate, weight and record (P)
• Add 100 g sample to plate
• Weight plate and sample
• Place the cup of water in corner of the microwave
• Place the sample in the centre of oven
• Set the oven on high for 3 mins
• Remove the sample and record the weight
• Change the water
• Set the oven on high for 2 mins
• Remove and weight the sample
• Repeat step 7 through 10 until weight does not change; then
record the final weight (F)
• Determine the percent of water content using:
• % = (1 – F) x - - - - -/1 P
Harvesting Equipments
• Harvesting equipment include Machetes, scythes and rotary
choppers
• Chopped length o forages
• between 2-4 cm
Filling, compacting and
covering
• Filling, spread the plastic on the outer edge
of the floor and the walls and let it hang
over the sides
• Use additives (molasses or urea)
• Compact using stone, barrels filled with
water/sand, vehicles or other heavy object
• Fill the silo and compact it as quickly as
possible
• Cover the silo immediately after filling and
compacting
• Keep checking once a week
• The silage ready three weeks after
preparation
Quality
• Appearance
• Texture
• Smell
• Color
Opening and closing
• Open only part of silage to be
used in 3-4 days and cover it
Cost and benefits
Costs
• Capital cost: building silo, machinery and equipment
• Running cost: Labor, fuel, materials and maintenance
Benefits
• Higher production (meat and milk)
• Better body condition
• Better fertility
• Healthy animal
• Higher income
 Hay and haymaking
• Hay is produced by dehydrating forage
to a moisture content less 15%.
• Preserving forages to distribute it
throughout the year.
• The curing of hay is accomplished by
mowing forage and allowing it
dehydrate
• This may take from 2 days to a week.
• Usually the hay is turned once with a
rake to expose the bottom to drying.
• It is baled.
• The size of bale
 two-twine bale weighing 50-75 Ib to
 three-wire bales of 120 -150 Ib.
• Types of bale
 Wire bale
• Allows a tighter bale is desirable when
hay is to be transported to distance.
• A disadvantage of wire is that a piece
of wire inevitably get it to the hay
causing hardwire disease.
 Sisal bale
• A disadvantage of sisal twine is that it
may rot in stack so the bales break
when handled.
 Plastic bale
• Durable but it is nonbiodegradable and
may cause environmental problems.
Hay preservation
• The oldest method is the sprinkling with salt .
• Salt has dissociated effect and draws moisture out of hay,
helping to reduce spoilage.
• Salted also increased palatability to livestock.
• Salt does not have antimicrobial activity.
• Formic acid and propionic acid have antifungal activity and
have favorable effect in preventing spoilage.
• The most effective preservative is anhydrous ammonia.
• Its application during storage is difficult and hazardous.
• Biological preservative such as lactobacillus acidophilus
products.
Feed Additives
• Feed additive is an ingredient or combination of ingredient
added to the basic feed mix or any chemical incorporated in
an animal feed for the purpose of improving rate of gain, feed
efficiency or prevention and control of disease
• Two types of feed additives
1. Nutrient feed additive (Minerals and vitamins)
2. Non-nutrient feed additive (antibiotic, antioxidant,
coccidiostat, and preservatives)
• Feed additives increase feed quality and feed palatability and
improve the animal performance
Antibiotic supplements
• Antibiotics are a group of soluble organic substances produced
from microorganism, which in small concentration have the
capacity of inhibition the growth of other microorganisms or
even destroying them
• Mode of action
1. Antibiotic spares protein, amino acid and vitamins
2. Act by increasing the absorption of B-vitamin in gastro-
intestinal tract
3. Increase absorptive capacity of intestine
4. Suppressing/destroying organisms which produced sub-
clinical infection and compete with host for nutrients
5. Stimulating the growth of microorganism which synthesis
essential nutrient
6. Alters intestinal bacteria so that less urease is produced and
thus less ammonia is formed (ammonia is harmful)
NB: A greatest beneficial effect of antibiotic feeding is observed
during the early growth period between weaning and 50 kg
body weight
Hormones
• Some of the hormones used as growth promoting agents in
livestock (estrogens, androgens, progesterone, growth
hormones, thyroxin and thyroprotein)
• Classes of growth hormones
1. Anabolic (somatotropin, thyroxin and androgens)
2. Catabolic (estrogen and glucocorticoids)
Harmful effect of hormone
feeding
1. Side effects include restlessness and milk secretion from
rudimentary teats
2. Residues of synthetic hormones (estrogen) in the meat have
carcinogenic properties
3. Thyroprotein in dairy animal causes general excitability and
injuries
Probiotic
• Probiotic means “for life”. These are live culture of non-
pathogenic viable organisms which are administered orally.
• An organisms and substances which contribute to intestinal
microbial balance (Parker, 1974)
• Probiotics are available in pastes, powder and liquid forms or
direct fed as additives
• Most commonly used microorganisms are Lactobacillus
acidophilus, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus lactis,
Aspergillus oryzae, Streptococcus foecium, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae etc.
Characteristics of good
probiotics
a) It should not be toxic or pathogenic
b) Should have a positive effect on the host
c) Should posses high survival rate and multiply faster
d) It should be cheap and economical
e) Feeding of probiotic to animal should be easy, safe and
simple
Prebiotic
• Prebiotics are non-digestible feed ingredients that beneficially
affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and or
activity of one or limited number of bacteria in the colon that
can improve the host health.
• Galactooligosaccharides, fructooligosaccharides and lactose
derivatives are used in monogastric animals
Arsenicals
• Organic arsenals had growth promoting properties similar to
those of antibiotics when added to diet of chicks
• They can be added at low level in feed to help protect feeds
from microbial destruction and prevent and control poultry
diseases.
• Arsanilic acid, sodium arsanilate are commonly used
Tranquilizer
• Tranquilizer drugs have been usually used to combat stress
due to heat or other environmental factors.
• Tranquilizers such as alkaloid, reserpine, hydroxyzine,
chloropromazine have been shown to improve daily weight
gain of livestock
Copper sulphate
• At 0.1 percent level of diet in fattening pigs, improve the rate
of gain and feed conversion efficiency
• Sheep are susceptible to copper poisoning.
Anthelmintics, coccidiostat and antifungal
• Out of many commercial products 2,2 dichlorovinyl dimethyl
phosphate has both anthelmintic and separate growth
stimulatory effect in cattle
• Coccidiostat are routinely used in diet of poultry to prevent
coccidiosis
• Antifungals are natural or synthetic substances which inhibit
the growth of fungi
Pigmenters and flavoring
agents
• Pigmenters are usually carotenoid sources added to feed to
improve pigmentation of broilers and eggs yolks.
• Some time, some flavoring substances are also used as feed
additives to improve palatability of certain feedstuffs
Antioxidants
• Antioxidants are added for stabilization of fats and fat soluble
vitamins and also prevent the destruction of vitamins by
oxidation
• Vitamin E is a good antioxidant of vitamin A and fats
• Some antioxidants include diphenyl-para-phenylene-diamine
(DPPD) butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) butylated hydroxy
toluene (BHT) and ethoxwuim.
Nutrient Requirements of Livestock