THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

By
Dr. Abdelaleem A. Mohamed
lecturer of physiology
Minia university
 The endocrine system is a system of ductless glands
(endocrine glands).

 Endocrine glands: ductless glands that secrete hormones

directly into the blood stream.
 Hormone: chemical substance secreted by endocrine
glands into the blood stream to act on distant organs
called effector (target) organs.

N.B. Exocrine glands: secrete secretions through a duct into

the digestive tract (enzymes, bile) or skin surface (sweat).
 Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands include:

 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

 Thyroid gland
 Parathyroid glands
 Adrenal (suprarenal) glands (cortex and
medulla)
 Islets of Langerhans (in pancreas)
 Sex glands or gonads
 Hormones
Hormones can be chemically classified into:-
A- Steroids:
 They are lipids in nature (i.e. lipid soluble) and
synthesized from cholesterol.
e.g. sex hormones
:B- Non-Steroids
 They may be either polypeptide or proteins or amino
acids.
e.g. pituitary hormones - pancreatic hormones – thyroid
hormones
 pituitary gland

It is a small gland present in a small cavity in the base of the skull (i.e. Sella Turcica).

It is formed of two main lobes:

Anterior lobe (i.e. Adenohypophysis).
Posterior lobe (i.e. Neurohypophysis ).
Anterior pituitary gland
 Growth hormone (GH) (somatotropin) -1
Regulation: GH-RF and GH-IF (somatostatin) from hypothalamus
Functions:
1- Growth: of all tissues bone and cartilage
(indirect by somatomedins)
2-Metabolism
 Hyperglycemia→ Diabetogenic.
 Protein anabolism
 Lipolysis→↑free fatty acids → source of energy → protein
sparing effect
3- lactogenic effects (↑increase milk production) as its structure
resemble prolactin.
 Prolactin (mammotropin) -2

Regulation:
PRF and PIF (dopamine) which is more potent from
hypothalamus

Functions:
Milk synthesis (production) by mammary gland
3-Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): regulated by TRF
from hypothalamus.
4-Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): regulated by
CRF from hypothalamus.
5-Gonadotropins (GTHs): regulated by GnRF from
hypothalamus.
a- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
b- Luteinizing hormone (LH)

 Functions:
Regulate function and growth of other target glands
(thyroid – adrenal cortex – gonads)
disorders
 Hyperfunction of Anterior pituitary
gigantism
 Increased GH (before puberty)
 Increased bone length (may reach 3 meters)
 acromegaly
 Increased GH after puberty)
 Manifestations:
1. Increased bone thickness
2. Prognathism (thick protruded mandible with widely
separated teeth)
3. Kyphosis (thick enlarged vertebrae)
4. Hands and feet → large, broad and thick
Enlarged nose
acromegaly
acromegaly
 Hypofunction of Anterior pituitary

Dwarfism
 Cause: Decreased GH only before puberty
 Manifestations:
(decreased bone length 1-1.2 meter- ↓ tissue growth (childish face)
- mentally normal but emotionally unstable)
Infantilism
Cause: Decreased GH and gonadotrophic H.
(↓GH and gonadotropins)
Manifestations:
(dwarfism + hyopogonadism)
 Pan-hypopituitarism

 Decreased all anterior Pituitary H. (Pan-

hypopituitarism)
 Manifestations:
Growth retardation (children) or premature
senility (adults) + hypogonadism +
hypofunction of all target glands as thyroid
and adrenal cortex
Posteriorv pituitary gland
 Antiduretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
 Formed in hypothalamus Supraoptic nucleus then stored and
released from posterior pituitary gland.
 Stimuli: Increased plasma osmotic pressure and decreased blood
volume (Hemorrhage)-----increase its release.
 Functions:
1-Increased water reabsorption from renal tubules so, decreased
urine volume
2-on Blood vessels:
physiological dose --- no effect.
Excess dose ----vasoconstriction→↑blood pressure.
3- Colic and increased uterine contraction.
 oxytocin
o Formed in hypothalamus paraventricular nucleus then
stored and released from posterior pituitary gland
o Stimuli: Suckling and delivery stimulate its release
o Functions:
1- milk ejection.
2 -uterine contraction help normal labor-involution
of uterus
3 - slight antidiuretic and pressor (vasoconstriction)
effect
disorders
 Diabetes insipidus (D.I.)
Causes
A- Central D.I.: decreased ADH due to:
1-Lesion in hypothalamus
2-lesion in hypothalamic hypophyseal tract (temporally)
B- Nephrogenic DI: defect in kidney receptor(no response to
exogenous ADH )
 Manifestations
1-Polyurea 20 L /day.
2- Urine specific gravity is low and fixed at 1002-1004.
3- Polydipsia: increased water intake.
4-Loss of water soluble vitamins in urine
5- Increased basal metabolic rate.
 Thyroid gland

 It is a small butter fly shaped gland

present in the neck in front of the
trachea.

 It is formed of two lobes connected by an

isthmus.

 It secretes two main hormones:

 1- Thyroid hormones
(T3 ; triiodothyronine and T4; thyroxine)
 Regulation: by TSH from anterior pituitary gland.
 Functions:
1-Increased metabolic rate and oxygen consumption by most
tissues (calorigenic effect).
2-Help physical (soft tissues and long bones), mental and sexual
growth.
2-calcitonin
 Regulation: plasma calcium level
 Functions:
Decreases blood calcium level by decreasing bone resorption and
increase calcium deposition in bone.
disorders
 Hyperthyroidism
Cause:
• Adenoma in the thyroid gland.
• Graves’ disease (autoimmune disorder).

Manifestations:
• Goiter (enlarged thyroid gland).
• Exophthalmos.
• Increased metabolic rate. ■ Tremors.
■ Dyspnea. ■ Tachycardia.
• Heat intolerance.
hyperthyroidism
 Hypothyroidism:
Before Puberty; Cretinism:
• Caused by:
Congenital or genetic deficiency in thyroid
hormones.
• Manifestations:
■ Dwarfism. ■ Hypogonadism.
■ Mental retardation.
■ Delayed milestones (i.e. delayed sitting, walking …..).
■ Swollen eye lids. ■ Enlarged protruded tongue.
 hypothyroidism

After puberty (Myxoedema)

Causes:
1) Surgical removal of thyroid
2) Endemic goiter = iodine deficiency.
3) Thyroditis.
4) Excess goitrogens in diet (cabbage and
cauliflower).
5) Panhypopituitarism.
 :After Puberty; Myxedema
• Manifestations:
1. Accumulation of myxematous tissue in interstitial
fluid (i.e. non pitting oedema).
2. Decrease basal metabolic rate.
3. Intolerance to cold.
4. Decrease food intake.
5. Bradycardia.
6. Slow thinking.
7. Skin: pale, yellow, dry and cold.
myxodema
 THE PARATHYROID GLAND

• They are 4 small glands attached to

the posterior surface of thyroid gland.
• They secret the parathyroid hormone
(PTH).
 :Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Stimulus of Release:
When plasma calcium level is decreased.
• Functions:
It increases plasma calcium level by acting on:
1- Bone;
Increases bone resorption (osteolysis) by increasing
formation and activity of osteoclasts (bone eating cells)
2- Kidney;
A-↑ Calcium reabsorption and ↓ phosphate reabsorption.
B- Activates vit. D3 (activates 1α hydroxlase enzyme in kidney)
3- Intestine;
Increases calcium absorption.
 Disorders of Parathyroid Gland:
Hyperparathyroidism:
• Cause:
Adenoma in the parathyroid gland.
• Manifestations:
1. Bone; weak and fragile.
2. Urinary tract stones.
3. Muscle weakness.
4. Constipation.
 :Tetany
• It is a state of increased
neuromuscular excitability due to
decreased ionized calcium in
blood
• (Normal plasma calcium 9-11 mg
%)
 Causes
1) Hypoparathyroidism.
2) Decreased vitamin D3.
3) Alkalemia ….. Due to precipitation
of calcium.
4) Renal failure.
 Types of tetany:
• Manifest tetany:
Calcium level below 7 mg%.
• Manifestations
1. Skeletal muscles show twitches.
2. Carpopadel spasm in hands.
3. Tonic contraction of pharyngeal
muscles and diaphragm.
4. Asphyxia, Cyanosis and death may
tetany
 :Latent tetany
Calcium between 7 – 9 mg%.
• Manifestations
 In latent tetany, the manifestations are
not apparent.
It may appear if any condition tends to
lower plasma calcium more.
 Treatment of tetany:
A- During attack; I.V. calcium gluconate
very slowly.
B- In between attacks or in latent type:
1) Oral calcium + vit. D3.
2) Acidifying salts (to ↑ ionized calcium).
3) Dihydrotacysterole; like PTH.
 CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
Physiological Functions of Calcium:
 Main component of bone and teeth.
 Blood clotting.
 Cell membrane permeability and excitability.
 Neuromuscular transmission.
 Release of neurotransmitters.
 Contraction of all types of muscles.
 Secretion of glands.
Mechanism(s) of Calcium Homeostasis:
• Normal plasma calcium level ~ 9-11 mg%.
• Plasma calcium level is kept constant by the action
of three hormones:
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH); ↑ plasma calcium
level when decreased (see details with PTH)
• Calcitonin hormone; it ↓ plasma calcium level
when increased (see details with calcitonin
hormone).
• Active vit. D3; it ↑intestinal absorption of calcium
from GIT and ↑ calcium deposition in bone.
Thank

you