History of Ethiopia and the Horn

(Hist. 1012)

A Common Course for Students of Higher Learning Institutions

Instructor: Ayana, B.
Haramaya University
College of Social Sciences and Humanities
School of History and Heritage Management
 Course Description
In short, this course is designed as a common course given
to Ethiopian Students of Higher Learning Institutions. The
course is divided into seven major chapters and other
specific subtopics. The purpose of the course is to help
students understand the history of Ethiopia and the Horn
from ancient times to 1995 as a base for shaping and
bettering the future. The course generally focuses on major
topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including
social, cultural, economic, and political developments and
their interrelationships thereof. The contents of the course
consider the chronology and thematic relations of events in
time and space. To make it inclusive and representative, the
course also includes regional histories across the period.
 Course Objectives

General Objective

The general objective of this course is to introduce

students to the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the
Horn and the extent to which interaction between
peoples throughout the region and with the outside
world has shaped the history of the region.
 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the course are to enable

students to:
 distinguish the nature and uses of history;
 identify pertinent sources for the history of the peoples of Ethiopia
and the Horn;
 describe changes and continuities that unfolded in Ethiopia and the
Horn;
 elucidate the causes, courses, and consequences of events that
happened in the region;
 explain the nature of the region’s external contacts and their effects;
and
 appreciate peoples’ achievements, heritages, and cultural diversities
 General Course Content
INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE

UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS)

UNIT TWO: PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS)

UNIT THREE: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
(6 HOURS)

UNIT FOUR: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH
CENTURIES (6 HOURS)

UNIT FIVE: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURIES (10 HRS)

UNIT SIX: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10 HOURS)

UNIT SEVEN: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995 (5 HOURS)

 Specific Course Contents
INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE

UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS)

1.1. The Nature and Uses of History

1.2. Sources And Methods of Historical Study

1.3. Historiography Of Ethiopia and The Horn

 UNIT TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4
HOURS)

2.1. Human Evolution

2.2. Neolithic Revolution

2.3. The Peopling of The Region

2.4. Religion and Religious Processes

 UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE
HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY (6 HOURS)

3.1. Emergence of States

3.2. Ancient States

3.3. External Contacts

3.4. Economic Formations

3.5. Socio-Cultural Achievements

 UNIT FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE
THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
(6 HOURS)

4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty

4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion, and Religious

Processes

4.3. Political And Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

4.4. Rivalry Between the Christian Kingdom and The Muslim Sultanates
 UNIT FIVE
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY
SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (10 HRS)

5.1. Conflict Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, and After

5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

5.3. Population Movements

5.4. Interaction And Integration Across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

5.5. Peoples And States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions

5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

 UNIT SIX
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10 HOURS)

6.1. The Nature of Interactions Among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the
Horn

6.2. The Making of the Modern Ethiopian State

6.3. Modernization Attempts

6.4. Socio-Economic Developments

 UNIT SEVEN
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995
(5 HOURS)

7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period

7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991)

7.3. Transitional Government

UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY

 A. NATURE OF HISTORY
The term was derived from a Greek- Istoria inquiry
or an account of one’s inquiries.

The term was first used by Herodotus (484-425BCE)- a

Greek historian, also called the father of history.

Commonly, history means all things that happened in

the human past events and facts of the past but kept
in writing.

It is also what actually happened in the past but exists

independently of the historian, however still awaits to
be recorded.
 Cont’d…
Applying their expertise to historical facts, historians write history.

Academically organized and systematic study of the past which

involves discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of
information about the past.

However, history is selective in its study since what happened in the

past is infinite.

Generally, it is concerned about human society and its interaction

with its environments in a time framework.
 Cont’d…
Considering significant social, political, economic, cultural, and
environmental developments in the time framework, historians divide
and study the past in periods.

Hence, conventionally, history is divided into ancient, medieval, and

modern history.

This is called periodization in history and is one of the key x-stics of

the discipline.
 B. Uses of History
To better understand the present
Providing a sense of identity
Provides a basic background for other disciplines
Teaches critical thinking
Helps develop tolerance and open-mindedness
Supplies endless sources of fascination
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
Historians are not creative writers like novelists.

Their work is supported by evidence obtained from sources.

Sources provide life to what appears to have been dead.

Sources are key to studying and writing history.

 TYPES OF SOURCES
1. Primary Source
Surviving traces of the past
Original and firsthand information
Examples manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters,
minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents,
photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts
such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.
 Cont’d…
2. Secondary Source
Second-hand published accounts of the past.
Produced long after the events happened.
Examples articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published
stories or movies about historical events.
No history work can be taken as final as new sources always provide
new interpretations and reconstructions.
 Cont’d…
3. Oral Data
This is important to study and document the history of non-literate
societies.
Used to fill missing gaps and verify written words.
For the study of Ethiopian history, all are employed.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Historiography
A history of historical writing
Studying how knowledge of the past is obtained and transmitted

Though people had sense of the past since ancient times,

historiography as intentional career is briefer.

The organized study of the past was started with Herodotus (484-
425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (455-400 B.C.E.).

The Chinese were also other writers in the ancient times and the
notable person was Sima Qian (145-86 B.C.E.) during the Han
Dynasty.
 Cont’d…
Despite all these history as an academic discipline started in the
second-half of the 19th c first in Europe and then in other parts of the
world including the US.

Leopold Von Ranke and his colleagues established history as

independent discipline in Berlin with its unique study methods.

Ranke is, therefore, considered as the father of modern

historiography.
 Cont’d…
The earliest reference on the Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous
author.

Other document was the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas

Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D.

The document describes the Aksumite trade and its King’s campaign
on both sides of the Red Sea.

There are also inscriptions that were written since the 7th c AD. And
was found in Yeha, Abba Gerima Monastry.
 Cont’d…
Other document was discovered in Haiq Istofanos Monastery in
Wallo in the 13th century.

Though these inscriptions dealt with religion, they provide an insight

about the country’s past for historians.

They contain lists of medieval kings and their brief histories.

The common source for the medieval Ethiopia was hagiography,

associated with the EOC.

These were written in Ge’ez and enhances the prestige of the saints.
 Cont’d…
Hagiography also presents about the development of church and
state and the King’s territorial annexations.

Equally, in Muslim communities, there were also hagiographies, and

one of such traditions was the one dedicated to a Muslim saint,
Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in Wollo, in the late 19thc.

The document also discusses the development of indigenous Islam

and the communities’ external relations.

Chronicle is also another indigenous tradition of history writing in

Ethiopia.
 Cont’d…
This appeared in the 14thc continued to the 20thc in Ge’ez and
Amharic.

The works of chroniclers were trusted by the Kings and the earliest
and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of
Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu
respectively.

They describe about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing, military

exploits, piety and statesmanship.

Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong

chronological framework.
 Cont’d…
They also explain events in religious terms than social and economic
developments.

Problems related to chronicles are problems of quantifications and

setting clear chronology of events.

Other important documents are also accounts of Arabic-speaking

travelers.

In this case, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture,
language and import-export trade in the region in the 10th and 14th
centuries respectively.
 Cont’d…
The Yemeni writers were important in recording about the 16th and
17thcs developments in the region.

Shihab ad-Din wrote Futuh al Habesha the described the Muslim vs

Christian conflicts in the period.

Major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of the

country were also documented.

The other document was written by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni

delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (1632-67).
 Cont’d…
Other first-hand document was Abba Bahrey’s account of the Oromo
people expansion written in 1593.

With all its limitations, it provided primary information about the

Oromo movement and the Gadaa system.

The European missionaries and travelers also left us important

document from the 16th to 19th centuries.

They documented about religious and political developments and

Ethiopia’s foreign relations.
 Cont’d…
One of such documents was The Prester John of the Indies written by
F. Alvarez (Portuguese).

Other document was the one written by J. Bruce- Travels to Discover

the Source of the Nile.

Many foreigners also developed interests in Ethiopian studies and

important in this case was Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704).

Was the founder of the Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17thc and
wrote Historia Aethiopica (A New History of Ethiopia).

Did not visit Ethiopia but collected the information from Abba
 Cont’d…
In the 19thc, August Dillman published two studies on ancient
Ethiopian history.

Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of

objectivity in his historical research endeavors.

Early 20th century marks departure from chronicle in the

development of Ethiopian historiography.

Traditional Ethiopian writers emerged who departed themselves

from chroniclers and criticized them for their praising tone while
writing about the monarchs.
 Cont’d…
The earliest group were Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme
Giorgis and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi.

Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot

Baykedagn joined them.

They had been writing about social justice, administrative reform,

economic analysis, and history.

Taye and Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on the history of Ethiopia

while Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people.
 Cont’d…
Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history
while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek
and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and
Public Administration) to his name.

The most prolific writer of the early 20thc was, however, Blatten Geta
Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.

He published four major works Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and

Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary)
and Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia).

Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and

methodological sophistication in their works.
 Cont’d…
Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the
early experiment in modern history writing and publications.

After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between

writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came
after him.

He published about eight historical works and he also made a better
evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.

Yilma Deressa’s work during this time was also another important
document Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A
History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century).
 Cont’d…
The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the
Muslim-Christian conflicts.

Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also wrote Zikre

Neger, which deals with the pre-war land tenure system and taxation
in Ethiopia.

Gebre-Wold Engidawork also left us with the history of land tenure

system in the country as well.

Further, Dejazmach Kebede Tesema wrote his memory of the

imperial era published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
 Cont’d…
1960s important in the development of modern Ethiopian
historiography.

History emerged as an academic discipline.

Historical studies became a full-time occupation with the opening of

the Department of History in 1963 at HSIU.

At the end of the decade, a large number of BA theses were produced.

The opening of MA and Ph.D. in 1979 and 1990 respectively

contributed to a wide range of research by both faculties and students.
 Cont’d…
The opening of IES (research organization) in 1963 further
contributed to the development of Ethiopian historiography.

In this institute, Richard Pankhurst, the founder, and director, did a
lot of prolific publications in the area of Ethiopian studies.

He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced

several hundred articles on Ethiopia.

Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the Journal of
Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research.
 Cont’d…
Professionalization of history in other Horn countries is a post-
colonial development.

After independence they became interested to know about their

past…

Then they began to re-cast historical records and recover evidence

of pre-colonial civilizations.

To do this, they began to use new methodological approaches like

oral data and tapping the percepts of auxiliary disciplines like
archeology, anthropology, and linguistics.
 Cont’d…
Other European scholars also began to challenge the Euro-centrism
of the previous studies which expanded to North America in the
1960s.

Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and

African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at
the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones.

Generally, African historiography is the result of both the European

and African universities’ scholarships.
 1.4. The Geographical Context
Ethiopia and the Horn part of NE Africa containing Djibouti, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, and Somalia.

Topography of the region uplifted mountainous due to the

formation of the Great Rift Valley.

The Rift Valley runs from Syria to Mozambique…

The region is mainly a plateau divided by the Great Rift Valley System
and surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts, and tropical forests
along the periphery.

The climatic condition, natural vegetation, soil composition, and

 Cont’d…
People across the border in the region are diverse but never isolated
historically rather they interact…

As they differ in some cases, they also share some common past.

History of the region has been shaped by contacts with the external
world in a number of ways…

The region is surrounded by the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, the Gulf
of Aden, and the Nile River as well as Sudan and Kenya.

The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked the region to the Eastern
Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East.
 Cont’d…
The Indian Ocean again to the Near and Middle East, India, and
the Far East.

There are five important drainage systems in the region’s:

1. The Nile River System white Nile (Uganda) & Blue Nile (Ethiopia) flow to
the Mediterranean Sea.
2. The Awash River System links the cool central highland with the hot,
dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression.
3. The Rift Valley Lakes System includes a string of lakes stretching from
Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana
4. The Gibe /Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the
semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya and
5. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and
flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean.
 Cont’d…
The Genale River flows to the Indian Ocean but the Juba/Shebelle disappears in
the Somali desert.

The region is also divided into three environmental zones:

1. The Eastern Lowland Northeastern and lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the
Denakil depression, the lower Awash valley, and the NE part of Djibouti,
Ogaden, Lower parts of Hararge, Bale, Borana, Sidamo, the Republic of Somalia.

 Climate hot and dry with no seasonal variation.

 Vegetation Shrub and bush are characteristic types in the region.

 Receives periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall except in the area crossed by rivers

 Settlement sparse.
 Cont’d…
2. The Central Highland runs from Eritrea all the way to southern
Ethiopia.

Consists of Arsi, Bale, and Hararge plateaus

The Great Rift Valley System divides this region into two- the eastern and
western parts
Topography of the region mountainous, deep valleys, extensive plateaus

3. The Western Lowland extends from north to south on the Ethio-

Sudanese borderline.

Hot lowland
Formerly covered by thick forest on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries
 Cont’d…
Despite all these, the horn countries are linked linguistically,
religiously, and ethnically…

Population movements had caused a continuous process of

interaction, creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns.

The interaction and sharing of a long common history by the people

had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the region.

Linguistic and cultural similarities are, therefore, as important as

ethnic origin in the grouping of the population.
 UNIT TWO

THE PEOPLE AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN
 INTRODUCTION
The region is the cradle of mankind.

Center of civilization where food production, tool

making, and religious practices started contributing to:

Social evolution;
Economic formations; and
Socio-cultural and political settings.
 1. Human Evolution
Human evolution accounts for only a fraction of history of the
world in general.

The earliest form was seen 3-1 billion BP.

Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds, and other small
beings emerged around 800 million BP.

The primates evolved around 200-170 million yrs. BP. and some of
them developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee,
orangutan, gibbon etc.).
 Cont’d…
Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the
cradle of humanity.

Ethiopian and foreign scholars discovered evidences of these in the

Lower Omo and Middle Awash River Valleys.

The following are some of fossil evidences in Ethiopia:

Chororapithecus (10mln BP)in Anchar (W/ Hararghe) 2007
Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (5.8-5.2mln BP) in Middle Awash
Ardipithicus ramidus (4.2mln BP) at Aramis in Afar 1994
Australopithecines (3.6mln BP) at Belohdelie in Middle Awash
Selam (3.3mln BP) at Dikika, Mille, Afar 2000
Lucy/Dinkinesh (3.18mln BP) at Hadar in Afar 1974
 Cont’d…
There were also fossils discovered in the region:
In Lake Turkana Australopithecus anamensis
At Bouri Middle Awash Australopithecus garhi (2.5mln BP) 1996-
1999

Development in human brain main feature of the next stage of

human development resulting in genus Homo
Emerged around 2-2.5mln BP.
Fossils recovered in different parts of the Ethiopia and the Horn
Homo Habilis (1.9mln BP) in Lower Omo
Homo Erectus (1.6mln BP) at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb

Homo Erectus originated in Africa and spread to the rest of the

world.
 Cont’d…
Homo Sapiens (400,000BP) named Bodo in Middle
Awash.

Homo Sapiens-Sapiens (100,000BP) at Pork Epic (Dire

Dawa) and Kibish (Lower Omo) in 1967.

Homo Sapiens Idaltu (160,000BP) in Middle Awash.

 Cultural Evolution
Technological changes that brought socio-economic changes in
human life…

There were different stages Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age.

Stone tools the first technologies developed…

Based on their features, ways and periods of production, they are

classified as:
Mode I (Olduwan named after first report made at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania),
Mode II (Acheulean named after the first report at St. Acheul, France), and
Mode III (Sangoon).
 Characteristics of these Materials
Mode I Tools crude and mono-facial styles, and produced by the
direct percussion.

Mode II Tools produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax

or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed, and
convex features

Mode III Tools characterized by flexible and fine form of

production by the use of obsidian.

Examples of these stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 Cont’d…
Bones (3.4mln-11,000BP) were also discovered with stone-tool-
inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tools in the
world) at Dikika in 2010.

Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were also

discovered near Gona (2.52mln BP in 1992) and at Shungura in
Afar.

Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools (1.7mln BP) invented fire

and started burial practices.

Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella,

Middle Awash in 1963.
 Cont’d…
Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools (300,000 yrs. BP).

Gademotta site in the central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated
back to 200, 000 BP.

Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one, and Yabello (Ethiopia) and

Midhidhishi and Gudgud (Somalia) have offered noteworthy
information about Stone Age communities.
 Division of Stone Age
Palaeolithic/Old Age (3.4-11,000BP)
people lived in caves,
developed languages, and
used stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing
Sex-age labor division able-bodied males as hunters and females and
children are gatherers.

Mesolithic/Middle Age (11,000-10,000BP)

A transition between the Paleolithic and neolithic age

A Neolithic/New Stone Age (10, 000-6, 000 BP)

 2. Neolithic Revolution
Human beings transferred from mobile to settled life.

Change from hunting and gathering to domestication of plants and

animals.

This is the result of climate change and an increase in the number of

hunter-gatherers.

Domestication of plants and animals took place independently across

the world.

In the elevated and wetter parts of Ethiopia and the Horn, people had
been cultivating teff, dagussa, nug, inset, etc.
 Cont’d…
Elements of the Neolithic revolution were discovered in different
areas:
Emba-Fakeda (Adigrat) and Aqordat and Barentu (Eritrea)polished axes,
ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures, and animal remains were
discovered.
Gobodara rock shelter (Axum) Agricultural stone tools.
Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana domesticated cattle,
chickpeas, and vegetables.
Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar Stone tools used for cutting.
Lake Basaka (Matahara) domesticated cattle, etc.
 3. Peopling of the Region

1. Languages and Linguistic Processes

 Introduction
Ethnically and linguistically, Ethiopia and the Horn is a diverse
region.

Over 90 languages and 200 dialects in the region.

However, there is some degree of unity where there are two super
language families spoken in the region Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-
Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic
Has three sub-divisions Cushitic, Semitic, and Omotic
Cushitic northern, central, eastern, and southern Cushitic
Northern Beja (in Northern Eritrea bordering Sudan).
Central Agaw (Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen).
Eastern Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya,
Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali,
Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
Southern Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.

Semitic Northern and Southern Semitic

Northern Ge'ez, Rashaida (Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna
(Eritrea and Tigray).
Southern Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane, Zay, Gafat (extinct), Gurage, and
Mesmes (endangered).
 Cont’d…
Omotic includes the following…
Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi,
Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
B. Nilo-Saharan
Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo,
Suri and Uduk.
 2. Settlement Patterns
Population distribution and settlement pattern in the region is the
result of long historical processes.

However, settlement is not uniform across the region.

Since earliest times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited
the area between the Red Sea in the east and the Blue Nile in the
west.

The Kushites, the dominant group in the region, also expanded from
Sudan to Tanzania beyond the HoA.

The Semitics, the second dominant, also settled the northern, north-
central, northeastern, south-central, and eastern parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
 Cont’d…
The majority of the Omotic people live in the southwestern parts of
Ethiopia along the Omo River except for the Shinasha (B-Gumuz) and
Ma’o (Wallagga).

The Nilots dominate the western part along the Ethio-Sudanese

borderlands.

But some like the Chari-Nile inhabited as far as southern Omo.

 3. Economic Formation
Domestication of plants and animals resulted in two forms of modes
of production agriculture and pastoralism.

These are also common in Ethiopia and the Horn.

There could be pure pastoralists but this is not always true in the case
of farming with no cattle.

Economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn are influenced by

topography and climate.

Pastoral economies dominate the lowland areas and is common

among Afars, Saho, Somali, Karrayyu, and Boranas.
 Cont’d…
Plateaus are known for plow agriculture and support large populations where the
majority practice mixed farming.

10,000yrs BP, sedentary started and advanced here by the Kushites, Semites, and
Omotic groups.

The Northern Omotic practiced mixed farming and trade

Southern Omotic pastoralism and fishing.

Other Omotic were also known in metallurgy, weaving, and other crafts.

In the western part pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture, and
hunting.
 Sorghum, millet, cotton, and other crops have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along
 Cont’d…
The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers practiced
shifting cultivation where sorghum has been a staple food.

Among the majority of Nilotic communities, cattle have high

economic and social values.

Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with
northern Sudan.
4. Religion and Religious Processes
 Introduction
The people of the region practiced four different types of religion:
Indigenous, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
1. Indigenous Religion
Refers to belief systems and practices native to the region, and have been followed
by local people for centuries.
Such religious practices believe in Supreme Being but special powers are attributed
to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.
Among the Oromo people, Waqeffanna is a common religion and believes in the
existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa, whose power is manifested through
Ayyana.
There are so many spirits that the Oromo worship and some of these are:
 Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit),
 Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit),
 Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit),
 Balas (victory spirit),
 Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),
 Gijare/Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),
 Jaricha (peace spirit), and
 Cont’d…
The Oromos also believe that the dead exists in the form of ghost
called Ekera.

The people are also known in Irreechaa festivity celebrated during

autumn and spring seasons every year.

According to these people, Qaalluu is a revered expert that link

between the ayyaanaa and the believers.
 Cont’d…
The Hadiyas believe in a Supreme Being called Waa, whom they believe
created the World.
Kambata also accepts Negita or Aricho Magano- Sky God-, and religious
officials known as Magnancho.
Gedeo Mageno with thanks giving ceremony Deraro
Konso Waaq/Wakh
Gojjam Agaw Diban (Sky God)
Gurage Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and
Damwamwit (health goddess).
Yem Ha’o (Sky God).
Wolayta God-Tosa/Spirit-Ayana
Different forms of spirit Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice
spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa
(emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo
 Cont’d…
Konta Docho.

Kafficho called their God Yero/ Spirit Eqo.

 The father of all spirit dochi or dehe-tateno.
 Harvest spirit Kollo.
 Earth and area spirit Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively.

Boro-Shinasha people:
 Their God Iqa

The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven)

 Believe that God comes through rain, lightning and Thunder,
 They believe rainbow as a necklace of God

Generally, there are so many things that makes indigenous religious

2. Judaism
Considered as a covenant that God established with ancient Hebrew
community.

This has been practiced by the people of Ethiopia and the Horn
before Christianity.

The Bete-Israel practiced their unique type of religious practice called

Haymanot different from Rabbinic Judaism.

These people trace their origin to the Dan clan of the Israelites
3. Christianity
Became state religion in Ethiopia by 334 AD. during Ezana (320-360).

He was converted by two Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius

(Fremnatos).

Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria,

Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of
Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).

Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until

1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.

Christianity expanded the mass by the 5th century AD during the reign
 Cont’d…
The saints also translated the Bible and other religious books into
Geez.

The expansion of the religion continued under the Zagwe (1150-

1270) but reached highest in the medieval period (1270-1527).

During this time, many churches and monasteries in different places

were built including the Reck-Hewn Churches of Lalibella.

These churches and monasteries are not only religious centers, but
served as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of
art.
 Cont’d…
From 16th-17th centuries, the Jesuit missionaries, the Jesuit missionaries
tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.

Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.

However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within

the EOC that is discussed in subsequent units.

Later, with the intervention of the missionaries, treaties were signed

between the Ethiopian authorities and the European Diplomats.

Active personalities in this were the Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist

mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal
Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie.
 Cont’d…
Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of
London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant
missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L.
Krapf.

The protestant group were effective in winning the confidence of the

local people.

They translated the Bible to the vernacular languages.

Adopted old names for the Supreme Being- Waaqayyoo, Tosa, etc.

Established village schools open to all members of society and also

provided medical facilities and these all attracted large number of people.
4. Islam
Prophet Mohammed had preached the religion in Mecca as of 610 AD., but was opposed by
the Quraysh rulers.

Then he sent some of his followers to Axum with his daughter Rukiya, her husband
(Uthman), his future wives (Habiba and Salma).

This first group were led by Jafar Abu Talib.

The word of the Prophet when he sent his followers to Axum: "…a king under whom none are
persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are
suffering.“

Then they got asylum from the Axumite King from 615-628.

Though the Quraysh rulers asked for repatriation, the King refused to do so.

The word of the Axumite King: "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up
 Cont’d…
Gradually, Islam expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn peacefully
through trade and missionaries.

Then it became strongly established on Dahlak (Alalay) Island by the

beginning of the 8th century AD.

By the 9th century, the Muslim community on the Island developed a
Sultanate.

Through time, others also settled on the coastal areas around the
Red Sea and gradually expanded among the pastoralists.
 Cont’d…
The Dahlak route played a minor role in the expansion of Islam into the
interior.

Then the Zeila port became important gateway up to the central part as
far as Shewa, Wallo, and Hararge.

The religion strongly established itself on the coastal areas by the 8 th

and 9th centuries then expanded to the rest part through traders and
the Muslim clerics.

Sheikh Hussien of Bale was important in the expansion of Islam in Bale,

Arsi, and other southern parts of the HoA.
 Cont’d…
Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th century A.D.
through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.

Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.

The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the
depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.
 UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE
HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
 Introduction
Since ancient times to the end of the 19th century, people of the
region underwent socio-political, economic, and cultural changes.

One such change was the evolution of states due to agriculture and
trade.

Religion shaped the socio-cultural life of the people.

Some socio-cultural achievements were the development of

architecture, writing, calendar, numerals, etc.
1. Emergence of States
This is the result of sedentary agriculture.

The features of this period were:

Construct permanent residence
Farming and harvesting crops to store to protect from humidity
Families preferred to live together forming large communities for security
purposes
Ox-drawn plow agriculture
Development of market system and traders
Specializations in particular activities– --- artisans

Hence, state formation was the result of agriculture whereas trade

facilitated the development and expansion of states.
 Cont’d…
State autonomous political unit having:
Population
Territory
Sovereignty and
Government

States developed independently across the world.

Religious leaders were important in shaping the socio-cultural

landscapes of states.

Through time, religious leaders were replaced by chiefs who began

to collect taxes, provide security issues, and other bureaucratic
activities.
 Cont’d…
Ethiopia and the Horn is among the African regions where early
state formation took place.

The states gradually developed into empires with well-demarcated

social structures.

The ability to control international water bodies and their ports

around the region made some states become stronger and dominate
other neighboring states.
 2. Ancient States

2.1. North and Northeast States

A. Punt
The earliest recorded state in the region

The evidence of its existence the Egyptian hieroglyphic writings and

paintings that show the Egyptian naval expedition sent by the Pharaohs to
collect myrrh, ebony, and electrum (gold and silver alloy) and other
important items at different times.

There is no consensus among scholars about the exact location of the

Punt.

Hence, references are used to locate the place in the region.

 Myrrh and incense point it to be northern or northeastern Somalia
 Gold, ebony, and monkey refer to northern Ethiopia.
 Others suggest it extended from Swakin (Massawa) to Babel Mandeb and Cape
B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern
Ethiopia and Eritrea
Da’amat:
 Located a little to the south of Axum
 Kings had been using Mukharib the politico-religious title of South
Arabians.
 People worshipped various gods and goddesses Almouqah (principal god),
Astar (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god).

Yeha:
 Located 30kms to the NE of Aksum
 This was a place where South Arabian merchants buy and store different trade
items.
 Become strong and developed from 750-500 BC.
 Hawulti Melazo and Addi-Seglemeni were other states that are found
surrounding the Axumite state by that time.
 There were other cultural centers that had developed in the region in the earliest
B. The Aksumite State
It was formed around 200-100 BC and first controlled a very small
area in the region only the center and its environs.

Gradually expanded to control other territories in all directions 

the Red Sea to the western edge of the Ethiopian plateau (east-west)
and Eritrea to northern Shawa (north-south).

Adulis was the major port of the Aksumite state during that time.

There were other ports like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera)
on the Aden and Serapion (Mogadishu), Nicon (Brava), and Merca on
the Indian Ocean that Aksum had been using.
 Cont’d…
Export items from Aksum mainly of natural products such as ivory,
myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia, and
cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise
shells, and some curiosity animals like apes.

They also import from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia.
Glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places;
Metallic sheets, tools, or utensils of various kinds, oil, and wine from the
Roman Empire and Syria.

Axum also had a link with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia
Minor).

Its King, Zoskales (c. 76-89), used to speak the Greek language by
that time.
 Cont’d…
The Axumite external contact resulted in the exchange of ideas, and
material and spiritual culture.

However, the contacts were not always peaceful and Aksum

managed to control Yemen around 200 BC.

Aksum also had been minting and using coins between the 3rd and
7th centuries made of gold, silver, and bronze that were used for local
and international trade.

Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i.e., the
Roman Empire, Persia, China, and Aksum) at the time.
 Cont’d…
Aksum had strong ships and fleets used for both trading and wars
during those days.

It was during Kaled (500-35BC) that Aksum expanded overseas but
there were local conflicts between the Christians and the converted
Judaism.

In this conflict, a large number of Christians were killed in Zafar and
Nagran by a local prince Dhu-Nuwas, who was converted to Judaism.

Kaleb got support from the Byzantine king, Justinian (r. 527-65),
against Dhu-Nuwas and defeated and replaced him with Abraha in
Arabia.
 Cont’d…
Aksum declined since the 7th century AD. due to internal and external
challenges.

Environmental degradation, the decline in agricultural productivity,

and possibly plague infestation started to weaken it.

Arabs destroyed Adulis, controlled the Red Sea coasts, and cut off
Aksum from external relations.

This weakened the Aksumite economy which came to be manifested in

military and governance.

This opened the way for a local rebellion from the Beja, the Agaw, and
Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) that finally sealed the collapse of the
D. Zagwe Dynasty
After the decline of Aksum, the political center shifted southward and
established among the Agaw community.

The Agaw were part of the Aksumite state since ancient times which
gave them an opportunity to participate in assuming different positions.

When Aksum became weakened, they successfully overtook

governance.

Merra Teklehaimanot overthrew the last Aksumite King, Dilna’od, and

became the first Zagwe King.

Successive rulers since then were Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela

 Cont’d…
The seat of the new dynasty was in Bugna District within Wag and
Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).

Territorial extension:
All ancient provinces of Aksum in the north
Northern Shawa in the south
Lake Tana region and northern part of today’s Gojjam in the west and
Red Sea coast in the east

Under the Zagwe, ancient Aksumite traditions were kept intact.

Renewed cultural contact with the Mediterranean world
Export items slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and
copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were imported.
 Cont’d…
In architectural development and translation of religious materials into Ge’ez, Zagwe
period was the golden age in Ethiopian history.

The period was known for the construction of caves, and semi-hewn and monolithic
churches.
 Caves eg. Bete-Mesqel.
 Semi-hewn eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete
Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
 Monolithic eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.

Among these, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all, and Bete Giyorgis is the most
finely built in the shape of the Cross.

Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and avoid difficulties, which
Ethiopian Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy Lands.

This was done by constructing churches based on the model of the Holy Lands in
 Cont’d…
Finally, the Zagwe Dynasty ended due to internal power struggle
and oppositions from group claiming Solomonic descent.

The Solomonic groups considered the Zagwes as power usurpers and

organized revolts in many ways.

Then Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285) organized his forces with the

assistance of the EOC and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek
in battle.

Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state

power proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
 3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A. Bizamo
Located south of the Abbay River around today’s Wambara
Founded in the 8th century and had early contact with Damot

B. Damot
The strongest state that expanded its territory into:
Most of south of Abbay,
North of Lake Tana and
East of Didessa
Its prominent king was Motalami
 Cont’d…
C. Enarya
One of the Gibe states in southwestern Ethiopia
Its Royal Clan Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso)
Its Kingship divine one Hinnare-Tato was considered sacred.
 UNIT FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE
LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
Introduction
The period experienced dynamic political, economic, and socio-
cultural developments that lay the foundation for the formation of
modern Ethiopia in the subsequent years.

some major events of the period were:

The "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty,
succession problems,
territorial expansion,
evangelization,
Flourishing and development of trade as well as
expansion of extensive socio−cultural interactions among different peoples
who lived in different agro−ecological zones
1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic” Dynasty
Rulers claimed that they descended from the last Aksumite kind Dilna’od.

However, this claim does not have historical evidence.

The claim that the Solomonic rulers also descended from King Solomon of
Israel is legendary.

The claim was written in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated
Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.

Kibre Negest states Ethiopian ruling class descended from Menelik I of Queen
Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.

Hence, Ethiopian monarchs from Yekuno Amlak to Haile Selassie I claim

4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial
Expansion and Religious Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal
Prison’ of Amba Gishen
After Yekuno-Amlak in 1285, power struggle set in among his sons
and grandsons on succession.
This was stated in the letter written by Yagba-Tsion to the Sultan of
Egypt and the Alexandrina Patriarch in 1290.
The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five
sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
The problem seemed transformed in the 1300 during the rule of
Widim-Ra’ad (1299-1314).
Established a Royal Prison House at Amba Gishen in Southern Wallo
where all male members were confined until one is installed on to the
throne.
 Cont’d…
The prison house was kept by guards loyal to the reigning king.

When the reigning king dies, then the designated successor is

brought to put on throne.

This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam

Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the
Christian Kingdom
1270-1636 the Monarchs had no permanent seat.

The initial center South Wallo Lake Haiq.

Gradually shifted southward to Menz, Tegulet, Bulga finally

Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.

After assuming power, Yekuno-Amlak consolidated his empire and

defeated Ifat.

However, till Made-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center of the Christian

Kingdom was limited to Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.
 Cont’d…
Made-Tsion the first Solomonic king to conduct massive territorial
expansion.

Aim economic and political controlling trade routes and

territories.

This time, trade expanded and vast territories were controlled.

Areas controlled Gojjam Agaw (1323/4), Bizamo and Damot

(1316/7), Bete-Israel (1332), and the Red Sea Coast.

In order to strengthen his power in the north, Enderta was given to
his wife Bilen-Saba.

Ifat and Shawa cooperated with the rebellious group in Enderta led
 Cont’d…
His son became the governor of Tigray, and in 1325, Amde-Tsion
campaigned to Eritrea.

He controlled and assigned a governor by the title Ma'ekale-Bahir

later changed to Bahire-Negash.

The Muslim sultanates in the southeast and the Omotic states of the
south were brought under the Christian kingdom.

By 1330s, Amde-Tsion fully controlled the trade routes and trading
sources in Ethiopia.

His successors continued his trend of territorial expansion and

 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious
Movements, and Religious Reforms of
Zara-Yaqob
 I. Evangelism
Christianity has long history in the country even before the expansion
of the Christian kingdom.

The early Christians played a role in expanding the religion across the
country.

Eyesus Mo’a preached in the newly incorporated areas where the

influence of Christianity was non-existed or minimal.

The religion largely expanded with the territorial expansion of Amde-

Tsion.

In the 13th century, Abune Tekle-Haymanot played a role in reviving

 Cont’d…
Abune Tekle Haymanot converted and baptized Motalami.

The clergy also spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as

Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar,
Damot, Waj and Enarya.
 II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement

In the EOC, monasticism became dominant in the mid-13th century.

This was the period of the development of monasticism and religious

movements in the country.

The major religious movement the Ewostatewos Movement, named after

the founder.

Ewostatewos:
 Established his own monastic center in sera’e (Eritrea),
 Trained many students until 1337
 Taught the strict observance of Sabbath
 He faced opposition from the clergy, left for Egypt but also faced the same from
 Cont’d…
After Ewostatewos left the country:
The movement weakened but revived when some of his followers
returned back home from Armenia
His followers dispersed to different monasteries in northern
Ethiopia
The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and
Hamassen.
Some Ewostatonians were imprisoned…
The King and the Abun opposed the movement and established
anti-group under the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-
Se’at Sereqe-Birhan.
Clergies expelled Ewostatonians from their churches
Some were forced to settle in the remote peripheries while some
others sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre-
 B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
Founded by Abba Estifanos

Strengthened in the 15th century through to the 16th century.

Abba Estifanos established rigid monastic organization poverty,

absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular
authorities.

Though discredited by his opponents, he gained followers from different

monastic communities.

Being invited to the court, he convinced the emperor that he posed no

threat to the royal power or the church but later collided with Zara-
 Cont’d…
Estifanos:
disapproved of the Emperor’s religious initiatives,
rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and
refused to participate in court judiciary procedures.

This group also strongly opposed the veneration of St. Mary but were
seriously punished by Zara Yaqob for this purpose.
 III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob

Zara Yaqob (r.1434-68) took the following measures to stabilize

and consolidate the EOC:
 Settled conflicts among clergies
 Made peace with the Ewostatewos
 Urged the clergy to preach Christianity in the remote areas
 Ordered people to fast on Wednesday and Friday
 Encouraged establishing libraries in every church which also revived
religious literature

 Books written by Zara-Yaqob Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad,

MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc.

 Some parts of Te’amre Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez

 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in
Muslim Sultanates
Since 14th century, many strong sultanates were emerged
along trade routes and trade was the greatest factor for their
development.
Trade served two purposes for such sultanates the only
source of livelihood and an agent for their formation.
Hence, it became the source of conflict between the
Muslims and the Christian kingdom.
One of such strong Muslim Sultanates emerged on the trade
route and resisted the Christian kingdom to the 16th century
was the State of Adal.
 4.3.1. The Rise of Adal
The kingdom was the successor of the Ifat that managed to expand
over the vast territory in Shawa and also resisted the Christian
kingdom.

Adal was founded by the part of the Walasma Dynasty that moved
southeast and settled in Harar in 1367.

Its first seat was Dakar at southeast of Harar.

After strengthening its power in the new center and Adal another
phase of military campaigns against the Christian Kingdom.

By 1520, they changed their seat to Harar after the defeat of Ahmed
Gragn, then to Awsa (Afar) in 1576/7 following the Oromo expansion.
 4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
Islam expanded through merchants and preachers.

Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577) were the most notable ones.

Zeila important trade route Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were

used as ports for their hinterland.

Massawa served as an outlet for trade in the north.

Generally, with the revival of trade, many trade centers emerged

along the trade route from the coast to the interior.
 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates
This rivalry was between the Christian kingdom and the Sultanate of Ifat over
the control of the Zeila route and trade items.

The first conflict took place in 1328 when the Muslims organized their armies
to take action against the Christian state.

Haqadin I hijacked merchants, confiscated goods, and imprisoned the King’s

agent coming from Cairo.

Then Amde-Tsion retaliated, defeated Haqadin I, and imprisoned him but

replaced his brother, Sabradin.

Later, Ifat was defeated, Sabradin was captured, and Ifat, Fatagar, and Dawaro
 Cont’d…
What Amde-Tsion needed was:
 Annual tribute,
 Freedom of movement of merchants across the Zeila route.

After the defeat of Ifat, others like Sharka, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were
also weakened.

After Amde-Tsion, his successors continued to defend the Christian

kingdom and conducted a repeated campaign to the lowlands.

In 1376, Haqadin II refused to pay tribute to the son of Amde-Tsion

(Neway-Mariam, r. 1371-80) but died in a war in 1386.

Sa’d ad-Din II (1386-1402) gained an initial victory until Dawit I (1380-

 Cont’d…
Sa’d ad-Din II remained a refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30)
killed him in 1415.

After this, the power of Muslim states declined but Adal continued
to challenge the Christian kingdom and killed Tewodros (1412-13)
and Yeshaq which intensified the struggle for predominance.

By the mid-15th century, Zara Yaqob got access to the Red Sea.

 In 1445, he defeated Ahmed Badlay but later Mohammed Ahmed

(r.1445-71), his son and successor, sent a message of submission to
Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal to the Christian state.
 Cont’d…
Finally, Ba’eda Maryam was defeated by the state of Adal in 1474.

Successors of Ba’ede Maryam were weak but still the Muslims opted
for a peace settlement.

Emir Mahfuz was the one who conducted an effective campaign to

the north but was killed while fighting with the army of Libne Dingil.

He was succeeded by Ahmed Gragn.

Apart from the conflicting relations, the Muslim and Christian states
also had wider socio-economic and cultural interactions.
4.5. External Relations
 4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
The Christian kingdom maintained contact both with the Christian
and Arab world countries.

Relation with Christian Europe during this time was influenced by the
legend of the Prester John.

Then subsequent contacts continued and Ethiopian delegates were

attending different ceremonies in Europe.
 UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM

THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
 Introduction
The unit deals with the sociopolitical and economic developments
from the early 16th to the late 18th centuries.

These developments contributed to the making of modern Ethiopia

through different forms of social interactions and mixings.

Major developments of the period:

Expansion of trade
Muslim-Christian conflict and external interventions
Afar, Somali, Argobba, and Oromo population movements
Religious expansions, the interaction of people, and resultant integrations
States and societies in Ethiopia and the Horn
The Gondarine Period (1636-1769), Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) including
the Yejju rule (1786-1853)
 5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal, and After
Revival of long-distance trade Muslim vs. Christian competition and
struggle over the control of trade routes.

Then serious wars between the two known as wars of religious

supremacy in the accounts of both groups.

Religion provided ideological justification the fact was controlling and

exploitation of the peripheries.

This war lasted from 1529-1543.

Before the war, the Muslims faced internal strife and disunities and that
called for new leadership.

Then Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, whose origin is obscure, came to
 Cont’d…
Born in Hubet between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga, he was brought up by
Muslim kin on the route to Zeila.

He was a devout Muslim but served Garad Abun of Adal as a soldier
before he assumed power.

Traditionally told that after the death of the Abun, he left for the
countryside and started calling for devotion to Islamic teaching.

After he assumed power things changed from the need to control the
trade route to territorial annexation for the Afar and Somali pastoralists.

The Muslim pastoralists had the need to expand to the highland areas
for better pasture and water.
 Cont’d…
Ahmed Gragn organized the Afar, Harari, Somali, Harla, and other
communities for a common objective and conducted a war over the
Christian kingdom.

Settled their internal differences, mobilized to fight with the Christian

kingdom, was also a guardian of Islamic doctrine from any alien
teaching.

He got acceptance and consolidated his army to fight the Christian
Kingdom.

This time, Libne Dengel was appointed at the age of eleven from the
Christian kingdom.

In the Muslim-Christain confrontations, initially the Christians were

victorious and managed to penetrate into the Muslim territories.
 Cont’d…
Later, Gragn controlled Adal, refused to pay tribute to the Christian
kingdom in 1520, and also conducted a military campaign in 1527.

Then he became victorious and controlled the states of Bali, Dawaro,

Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata and putting the Christian Kingdom
at risk.

By 1528, Libne Dengel mobilized a large army but failed to withstand the
army of Gragn due to logistic problems and a lack of a common
agenda.

Finally, the Christian army lost the Battle of Shumbura Kure in 1529.

After this, the largest part of the Christian kingdom failed at the hand of
 Cont’d…
By 1535 Ahmed Gragn controlled from Zeila to Massawa.

He established a civil administration that constituted his own men

and newly selected ones from the Christian territory.

Bati Del Wombera the most notable woman in the war.

She was the daughter of Imam Mahfuz and the wife of Gragn and
encouraged her husband for revenge against the Christian kingdom.

Through all these, Libne Dengel remained a fugitive until he died in

1540.

Then Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) replaced him and continued the

war with Muslims.
 Cont’d…
During this time, both sides began to get support from external
world Muslims from Turks and Christians from Portugal.

The Portuguese army was led by Christopher da Gama, the son of

Vasco da Gama.

But again in 1542, the Christian army lost the war at Ofla in Tigray, in
which around two-hundred Portuguese armies were killed, and
Christopher da Gama was beheaded.

This time, Seblewongel, the wife of Libne Dengel was said to have
participated in the war in 1542.

Then, Ahmed Gragn developed confidence in his army that they can
push back any force to come but the Christian army remained silent
and got prepared for the final offensive.
 Cont’d…
Finally, on February 25, 1543, Ahmed Gragn was defeated and killed in the
war at the Battle of Woyna-Dega.

After this victory, Gelawdewos:

 Restored all the northern possessions
 Became tolerant of Muslims
 Revived smooth relations with the Muslim world
 Restored all the former territories and tributary states
 Attempted to consolidate the state
 Camped the chewa (regiments) in the border areas

By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian

Kingdom.

However, it was challenging to maintain dominance over the Muslim

 Cont’d…
The Christian kingdom was challenged by the retreating soldiers of
the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, the Jesuit interlude, and
the Oromo advance into the center.

The Adalites organized under Nur Ibn al Waazir Mujahid to fight

against the Christian state for revenge.

In 1559, Gelawdwos was killed in a Battle with the armies of Emir
Nur.

After Gelawdwos, Minas (r.1559-1563) succeeded and assumed

power.
Defeated the Turks
Reclaimed the lost territories including Dabarwa
 Cont’d…
By the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted supporting the Turks against the
reigning emperor.

But Sartsa Dengle (r.1563-1598) fought with internal and external

forces during his time.
External Turks
Internal the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.

The Turks were defeated in the north and territories were regained.
 Consequences of the Muslim-Christian War
Human and material destruction

The easy success of the Oromos

Cultural interaction among people of the country

The Muslim-Christian world competition over the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean supremacy

The weakening of the power of the EOC and the destruction of

properties
 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious
Controversies
During the war with the Muslim Sultanates, the Christian rulers made an
alliance with the Roman Catholics to secure arms.

 In 1557 catholic missionaries with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came

to expand the religion

The Jesuit missionaries came with a different doctrine to the EOC about the
nature of Christ.

The EOC accepts the union the divine and human nature of Christ is
inseparable.

Key Catholic missionaries of the period Joao Bermudez, Andreas de

 Cont’d…
The missionaries approached Gelawdewos first but were
unsuccessful.

Minas and Sartsa Dengle didn’t get time to engage with the
Catholics focusing on local issues.

The Catholics succeeded with Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) but his period
was short for the Jesuits to influence.

Later, Za-Dengel was deposed by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7) who

also was challenged by Susenyos (r. 1607-32).

Provincial leaders refused to pay tribute to Susenyos he

 Cont’d…
By 1612, Susenyos was converted to Catholicism

1622 announced it to be the state religion.

Different reforms were made:

 Reconsecration of the Orthodox priests and deacons
 Rebaptism of the mass
 Suspension of Old Testament customs male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath
 Prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez
 Prohibition of fasting on Wednesday and Friday
 Prohibition of respect for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot)

The Emperor ordered:

eating pork
The use of Latin Mass and Gregorian Calendar

Finally, the emperor faced a challenge from including his son, Fasiledas (1632-67)
 Cont’d…
This resulted in religious controversy and the loss of many peasants’ lives.

Finally, by 1632, Susenyos resigned in favor of his son, Faselidas, and he:
 Reversed Catholicism
 Restored the position of the EOC as the state religion
 Expelled the missionaries
 Punished local converts
 Introduced a close-door policy to the west but opened his door to the east

Only James Bruce (1769) and Charles Jacques Poncet (1700) visited Ethiopia
from the west during this time.

From the influence of the Catholics, three doctrinal differences emerged

within the EOC Tewahedo/Hulet Lidet (divinity and humanity united);
Qibat eternal birth and Holy Ghost anointment; Sost Lidet born
through Grace, born to the womb of Mary, and anointed by Holy Ghost.
 5.3. Population Movements
Reasons for the population movement:
Push and pull factors
Natural and social factors
In search of resources and better living conditions
In Ethiopia and the Horn conflict, drought, and demographic factors

During the medieval period, the effects were:

People integration
Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
Intermingling of people.

Specific result of the period:

Intermarriage of peoples, change of residence, an original culture, and
evolution of new identities.
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar,
and Somali
This partly resulted from the Muslim-Christian conflict of the late
15th to early 16th centuries.

Environmental pressure was also another factor as the area was

located through which the trade route passes and was affected by
conflicts.

The people had been oscillating in response to the conflict in the

region.

Trade was a major agent of Islamic expansion and Muslim state

formations.
 A. The Argobba
The Sultanate of Shewa moved eastward to escape the influence of
the Christian kingdom.

Then the Sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argobba were dominant,

became the center of Islamic resistance.

Towards the beginning of the war of Ahmed Gragn, the Argobbans

joined armies with Afar and Somali.

Due to its strategic location, Argobba became the center of conflict

between Muslims and Christians.
 Cont’d…
Hence, the conflict resulted in the destruction of the state and the
dispersion of the people.

The lasting effect of the conflict can be observed from the

fragmented settlement patterns of the people.
 B. Afar
Before the 16th century, they had pushed as far as the Middle Awash
due to drought.

Trade route also passed through their territory connecting the Horn.

Then it became the center of competition over trade routes.

They were also actors in the conflict but they also dispersed in a
different directions due to the conflict.

Their pastoral economy helped them to survive the disastrous war

 C. Somali
Located on the main trade route

Before the Muslim-Christian wars of the 16th century, they faced an

environmental challenge in the area.

This contributed to the population movement that also became a

strong force behind the military strength of Ahmed Gragn.

However, after 1543, with the defeat of Ahmed Gragn, they returned
back home and their influence did not last long.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)
 A. The Gadaa System
Strongly contributed to the Oromo population movement and expansion

The sociopolitical institution through which the people organize

themselves, defend their territories, administer their affairs, maintain law
and order, and manage their economies.

This system constitutes elements of Democracy like period election, fair

representation, and power-sharing to prevent one-man rule.

It is also an agent of socialization, education, maintaining peace, and

social cohesion.

It organizes the people into age grades and generation sets delineating
members' social, political, and economic responsibilities.
 Cont’d…
In the system, ten age grades and five classes operated in parallel.
Cont’d…
 B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
Resulted from the natural and manmade factors
Natural  demographic increase and the need for land for human and
livestock
Manmade the influence of the Muslim-Christian war to leave their
homeland for other areas.

Before their expansion, the Oromo were organized into the Borana
and Barentu confederacies.

Oromo armies advanced to the north between Mount Walabu and

Lake Abaya, then westward to Bilatte River, to the south, and then
turned north to the Lakes Region of the Rift Valley.
 Cont’d…
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
 Melba (1522-1530)  fought and defeated the Christian regiment Batra Amora led
by Fasil and occupied Bali
 Mudena (1530-8)  reached the edge of the Awash River.
 Kilole (1538- 46)  controlled Dawaro after defeating the Christian regiment Adal
Mabraq while Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
 Michille (1554-62)  scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan
Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahidin at Mount Hazalo.
 Harmufa (1562-70)  fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied
Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint, etc.
 Robale (1570-78)  fought with the army of Sartsa Dingil and first lost the battle at
Wayna Dega in 1574 but later recovered and defeated the army of Zara’a Yohannis.
 Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa, and
overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
 Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and
Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa
while others like the Warday moved to Kenya, Bur Haqaba, and Majertin in
 Cont’d…
In the course of their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.
Oda Nabee of Tulama,
Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
Oda Bisil of Mecha,
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha
Oda Gayo of Sabbo-Gona,
Oda Me'e Bokko of Guji,
Oda Dogi of Ilu,
Oda Hulle of Jimma,
Oda Garado of Waloo, etc. became major Gadaa centers.

 Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili
of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma, and others established Gadaa centers and
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious
Diversities
The general condition of the medieval period was a factor in people’s
interaction in the region.

The interaction occurred both during the peace and conflict periods.

One of the major consequences of this interaction was people’s integration

in religion and ethnicity.

During this time, the Oromo population movement and expansion brought
an end to the Muslim-Christian War and the southward expansion of the
Christian kingdom.

The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms:

 Cont’d…
Guddifacha adoption of a child by a foster parent where the child
enjoys equal rights and privileges with a biological child.

Moggasa  adopted non-Oromos where the adopted groups gained

both protection and material benefits.

The process significantly contributed to social cohesions, national

integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central,
Southern, and Western Regions
The Easterners Somali, Afar, Argobba, and the Emir of Harar.

The Central and South Central Shewa, Gurage, Kambata, and

Hadya.

The Southerners Sidama, Gedeo, and Konso

The Southwesterners Wolayta, Kafa, Yem, Gamo, Dawuro, and Ari

The Westerners Berta and Gumuz, Anywa, Nuer, Majang, and the
Kunama
5.6. The Gondarine Period and
Zemene-Mesafint

5.6.1. The Gondarine Period

 A. Political Developments
This began during Sartsa-Dengel when the political center moved to
the Gondar area and established Royal Camp at Enfranz in 1571.

Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar in

such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz, and Azazo.

Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his political

seat there.

Gondar became glorious during the first three rulers Fasiledas

(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82), and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
 Major Developments of these periods:
The restoration of the Orthodox Church as the state religion,

The establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni,

The establishment of a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem

by Yohannes I and his councils, and

Land reform the introduction of land measurement, taxes,

customs, and revision of the Fetha Negest by Iyasu I.

Iyasu the Great was assassinated and this led to political instability
and the poisoning of the reigning emperors.
 Cont’d…
Tekle-Haymanot, the son of Iyasu the Great, was appointed in 1706
but was also assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.

Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos in 1711, who was also poisoned
and replaced by Dawit III, again poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in
1721.

Bakafa, with the support of his wife- Etege Mentewab, tried to

restore stability but was unsuccessful since he was incapacitated in
1728.

The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the

Oromo in Imperial politics and the army as will be discussed shortly.
 Cont’d…
From 1728 to 1768, Mentewab and her brother, Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767), dominated the Gondarine court politics.
Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas
(1755-69).
After his death in 1767, Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito of Wollo,
and invited Mikael Sehul of Tigray who was politically shrewd and militarily
powerful.
Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to return to
Tigray although demanded by Iyoas.
This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man
Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el.
Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77)
in power.
 B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two centuries.

In many instances, it repeated the Aksumite and the Lalibella

achievements in the areas of architecture, painting, literature, trade,
and urbanization.
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
The period when actual political power was in the hands of different
regional lords.

Covers the period from the assassination of Iyoas in 1769 to the coming to
power of Tewodros II in 1855.

Ras Michael Sehul became a kingmaker, however, failed short of popularity

among the mass due to his evility.

Then coalition of armed forces from Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo
fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.

After his defeat, there was relative stability but several regional lords
emerged where the main centers were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir,
 Cont’d…
This time, the “Yejju dynasty”, which was founded by Ali Gwangul (Ali I
or Ali Talaq) in 1786, was the leading power with the center at Debre-
tabor.

The Yejju Dynasty reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825)
who fought with Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch
Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.

In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam

Gebre of Simen.

Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.

Zemene Mesafint was ended by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of

 Major features of Zemene-Mesafint
 Absence of effective central government;
 The growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
 Rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker;
 Establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy.
 Developments in terms of literature, arts, architecture
 UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL

RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN,
1800-1941
 Introduction
Covers the period from the early 19th century to 1941

Begins with the period 1800 when most states in the southern half
emerged.

The continuous and complex interactions and external relations that

shaped the region’s modern history are also covered.
6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples
and States of Ethiopia and the Horn

6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and

Western Ethiopia
 A. South-Central Peoples and States
Politically autonomous and semi-autonomous states Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, and Gurage

Largely agrarian in economy

Local merchants participate in local trade and sometimes the long-

distance trade which passes through this territory

Among these, the Gurage land was an important market center and
political entity where important trade centers such as Soddo and
Aymallel were located.

Gurage had its own political organization led by Abegaz or Azmach

 Cont’d…
Qebena emerged as an important political center in the 19th century.

Became the center of Muslim revivalism that swept across a large

part of the region and was attended by a fast spread of Islam.
 B. The Gibe States
These were monarchical states that emerged at the expense of the
Gadaa System

Following the wars of expansion, many leaders and powerful

individuals usurped the power of the Gadaa government.

The Abbaa Duulaas accumulated wealth and utilized the opportunity

to establish hereditary leadership.

These developments took place among the Gibe Oromos where five
monarchical states emerged.
 i. Limmu-Enarya
The earliest of the Gibe states.

Founded on the medieval state of Enarya after Tesso (Abbaa Duulaa

of Limmu) defeated the successive Enaryan rulers of Badancho,
Gu’amcho, and Banaro at different times

Then, Bofoo/Abbaa Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya

Ibsa, who brought the state to the highest, incorporated Hagalo,

Badi-Folla, etc.

Finally he was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (1861-1883).

 ii. Gumma
Established by Jilcha after killing Sarbaroda of the Dogaye clan

Later succeeded by his son, Oncho (1810-1830)

Oncho was again succeeded by Jawwe (1840-1854).

iii. Gomma
Formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who

succeeded by his son Abba Manoo (1829-1840) who occupied

Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars
 iv. Jimma
Initially, Makahore emerged as an influential female figure among the
Oromo of Jimma.

Then later Abbaa Duulaas took political power from her, and Ose Kobi
(Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler.

After him, Dangila (Abba Magal) enlarged the domain but the process of
state formation ended with Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who formed
the Jimma Kingdom.

Abbaa Jifar II (r.1875-1934) was the most famous of all the Jimma rulers.

Agriculture, trade, iron mining, and smelting were the base of their
economy.
 v. Gera
The last to be formed in the Gibe region

State formation was completed during Tulluu Gunji (r.1835-38) who

self-appointed as a king.

Succeeded by Abbaa Raagoo I (1834-1848) but there was a brief

period of rule by Abba Basso.

Became prosperous under Abbaa Magaal who was converted to

Islam.

Gera also attracted Muslim missionaries to preach Islam in the area.

 C. The Leqa States
Here also several monarchy states emerged in Wallagga among the
Maccaa Oromoo.

These were the Leeqaa states, the Sibu, and the Jaawwii south of
the Abbay River.

In the Horro area, Abishe Gerba established a strong monarchical

state.

Others also declared themselves Mootii (king) by controlling trade

routes and territories where the Leeqaa states were prominent.
 I. Leqa-Naqamte
Founded by Bakare Godana in 1840 and reached the highest under
Moroda and Kumsa.

The latter established a strong monarchy rich in trade and agriculture.

Kumsa (Gebre Egziabher) promoted handcraft work, gold washing,

coffee planting, and game reserves/hunting.

Rulers established a new administrative structure and judicial hierarchy

that replaced the Gadaa system known as sirna abbaa-qoroo (qoro
system).

The administration was a kingship and had similarity to feudal

administration in its reliance on the land.
 II. Leqa-Qellam
Located in southwestern Wallagga

Founded by Tullu, and became prominent under Jote at its center in

Gidami, who controlled the areas around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.

D. Ilu
Founded by Chali Shano of the Tume clan leader in the early 19th
century.

This was one of the most prosperous states in the region.

 Cont’d…
The monarchical states set their own unique local titles
Abba Gurmu (next person to the king),
Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister),
Abba Dango (immigration chief),
Lammi (ambassador/royal messenger),
Abba Qoro (district governor),
Abba Ganda (village chief),
Abba Busi (tax head),
Abba Jiga (murder judge), and
Abba-Qawe (bodyguard).

 Different from practices under the Gadaa system, farmers were forced to pay
crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano (about 15
kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop.
 E. Nilotic Sheikdoms
Important Islamic centers and states were established in this area by
the Sudanese traders over Berta and Gumuz people.
the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul, and Khomosha were
established to the south of the Abbay River
the Sheikhdom of Guba emerged to the north of the same river on the
western edge of Gojjam

These states were established by the “Watawits”- the Arabized Berta

people who entered and settled in the area as traders and Islamic
teachers.

Economically agriculture, gold-mining, and frontier traders.

Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan, Benishangul under
Abd al Rahman Khojale, and Khomosha during Khojale Muhammad Wad
Mahmud.
 6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes
The trade route in the region become particularly prominent in the
19th century with the revival of external trade through the Red Sea.

Then, it became a means of maintaining strong relations among the

people in the region.

Two main trade routes linked the people in the region.

The first started from Bonga and linked the southwestern with the
northern Ethiopian regions.
The main market centers were BongaHirmata (in Jimma)Saqa (in
Limmu)Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte)Asandabo (in Guduru)Basso-Yajube (in
Gojjam)Yifag and Darita (in Begemider)Gondar
…Gondar Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat)
…GondarAdwaAsmaraMassawa.
Trade Routes of Ethiopia and the Horn in the Nineteenth Century
 Cont’d…
The second also began from BongaHirmataAgabjaAndode-
ToliSoddoRoggeAliyu Amba or Abdul RasulHarar.
…HararZeila and Berbera (Somalia)Middle East

 In these trade interactions, trade items were collected from the

southwest
 gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, various
spices, and slaves
 Slaves were exported to Arabia, Persia, and India

 Import items ironware and the medium of exchange were salt bars
(amole), iron bars, wines, cowries’ shells, beads, pieces of cotton
cloth (abujadi), Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT), etc.
6.2. The Making of the Modern Ethiopian State
Trade, population movements, evangelization, and wars played
important roles in linking people and the making of the modern
Ethiopian state.

Many autonomous and semi-autonomous states also existed…

The different states of the 19th century were involved in territorial

expansion for territorial acquisition and state-building.

The making of the modern Ethiopian state passed through two

phases unification of the northern and the central part and
expansion to the general south.
 A. The Process of Territorial Unification
Followed the revival of the imperial power after Zemene Mesafint.

Kassa Hailu ended the Zemene Mesafint and assumed power by the
name Tewodros II (1855-68).

Kassa, with his brother, defeated the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in
Eastern Sudan) in 1837.

Later, he fought the Egyptians at Debark in 1848 but was defeated.

His war with the Egyptians made him famous in the area which
became a concern to the Yejju Family.

Then a political arrangement was made to pacify him and he married

the daughter of Ras Ali, Mentwab, and was appointed the governor of
 Cont’d…
To end the Zemene Mesafint, Kassa fought four major battles…
At Gur Amba on November 27, 1852 with Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam
At Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign) on April 12, 1853 with Birru Aligaz, Aben,
Yazew and Belew sent by Ras Ali
At Ayshal on 29 June 1853 with Ras Ali himself
At Deresge on 8 February 1855 with Dejjazmach Wube of Semen and
Tigray.

Finally, he was anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at

Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855, as Tewodros II (1855-1868),
King of Kings of Ethiopia.

Then he marched south to Wallo and Shawa to create a strong and

centralized state but soon faced strong opposition from Gojjam,
Simen, Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray.
 Cont’d…
Due to both internal and external factors, he did not realize his dream
and finally died in 1868 at Makdalla in Wallo while fighting with the
British armies.

After his death, three power contenders came but Wakshum Gobeze of
Lasta rose to power as Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71).

He was also defeated by Kassa Mircha of Tigray at Assam (near Adwa) in
1871 and Kassa became the King (1872-1889).

He followed a decentralized approach to state-building and recognized

Menelik as the King of Shawa at the Liche Agreement.

Ras Tesema of Gojjam was also appointed to Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.
 Cont’d…
Emperor Yohannes IV united the predominantly-Christian
provinces Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam,
Wollo, Shewa, and the Mereb Milash for quite some time.

Also sought to end religious controversies in the EOC for religious

unity…

Declared Tewahdo as the only Christian doctrine at Boru Meda

Council (1878).

Also declared a campaign to convert Muslims to Christianity.

There were external challenges from the Italians and Egyptians and
also internally from the regional governors to his rule…
 B. Territorial Expansion
After assuming power Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, and Menelik II embarked
on state-building and lived for that.

Menelik II became successful by securing modern firearms among others.

Other reasons were control of resourceful areas that helped in building a

strong military and the determination of his generals.

Menelik II conducted territorial expansion in three phases:

 As a king of Shawa (1865-1889)
 During his Emperorship to Adwa (1889-1896)
 The Post-Adwa period (1896-1900)

Before the 1870s, different Tulama and Mecha Oromos under the leadership
of Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e of Gullale, Tufa Muna of Gimbichu, Ture
Galate of Soddo, and others were controlled.
 Cont’d…
Some Oromo contributed to the process of the Modern Ethiopian
Empire Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde,
Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba Nefso), and others.

Menelik’s expansion to western and southwestern was concluded

through peaceful and forceful means.

The peacefully submitted areas Northern Gurage (Kistane), Leqa-

Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba Jifar.

In most cases, where the local rulers formed coalitions, the
expanding imperial army faced strong resistance in the western and
southwestern areas.
 Cont’d…
Similarly, in the Gibe region, incorporation was not peaceful.

Serious battles were fought in Arsi and Hararge areas in the 1880s of
which the prominent Battles were the Battle of Anole (Arsi) and
Chalanqo (Hararge) in 1887.

The peacefully submitted areas were promised recognition and

maintained their autonomy by the emperor.

The Great Famine (the Kifu Qen) (1888-92) also contributed to

Menelik’s expansion to the southern parts.

From 1889-1894 Dawaro, Konta, Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and

 Cont’d…
Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawurari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe Mekwas Abate
Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of
Jimma participated in the campaign to Walayita.

Wolayita, under Kawo Tona, was finally subdued in 1894 following which
Borana, Gedeo, and Konso were incorporated.

Kafa, Borana, Beni-Shangul, and Gambella were incorporated after the

battle of Adwa.

Kafa, under Tato Gaki Sherocho strongly resisted Menelik’s army similar to
the Wolayita.

This was followed by the incorporation of the Baro and Gambella regions.

Finally, territorial expansion was concluded with the signing of boundary

treaties with the surrounding colonial powers.
 Cont’d…
After Menilek, the process of centralization and establishing a
unitary state continued by abolishing regional autonomies in the
early decades of the twentieth century.
In the process, Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika’el
was defeated), Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa
Wole was defeated in 1930), Gojjam in 1932, and Jimma in 1933 were
reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile-Sillassie I).
 6.3. Modernization Attempts
1800-1941 Ethiopian emperors tried to adopt western ideas and
technology.

This was started with Tewodros II, though his predecessors also had
information about their technology.

Then he approached the Europeans for the introduction of western

science and technologies.

Tewodros II took a number of military, administrative and socio-

economic reform measures.
 Military titles like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa were adopted.
 He also introduced salaried military force for the first time.
 Tried to manufacture firearms at Gafat near Debre Tabor.
 Cont’d…
Administrative reforms were:
Power centralization to secure a financial base
General pacification where people were made to return to their lawful vocations
merchants to their stores and farmers to their plow.
Tried to separate church and state monarchy
Reduced the amount of church land and the number of priests and deacons in every
church.

These brought him into conflict with the church which precipitated his downfall.

Socio-economic reforms:
Road construction that linked Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela
An attempt to end the slave trade
Land reform and banning of polygamy
Use of Amharic as a national language
Establishment of library at Maqdala
An attempt to end doctrinal differences in the EOC
Under Yohannes IV
Appointment of foreign consul to serve in London
Hiring foreign personalities to support his modernization process
Sending out students for scholarship education
Introduction of vaccination against smallpox
Extensive treatments for syphilis in several towns
During Menelik II
Establishment of postal services, telecommunication/the telephone-
telegraph system
Construction f Ethio-Djibouti railway
Opening of the banking system (Bank of Abyssinia)
The introduction of the silver coin

Administrative Reforms:
Introduction of ministerial systems
Introduction of the hotel industry
Introduction of modern schools
Foundation of Russian Red Cross Hospital and Russian-run hospital
During Lij Iyasu (1913-1916)
The banning of the Quragna System
Amended a Lebashay
Introduced municipal police called Trinbulle
Introduction of audit system to government account
An attempt to integrate Muslims into the administrative system
The introduction of a flour mill, sawmill, grinding mill, tannery, soap
factory, etc.
During the Dual Rule Period of Zewditu and Teferi (1916-
1930)
Ethiopia became a member of the League of Nations
Centralization of the government
Promulgation of the first state constitution
Establishment of Imperial Bodyguard
The opening of Ethiopia’s first military academy at Holeta
Most ideas of the reforms of this period were put into
implementation after Haile Selassie I formally became a Monarch
 6.4. Socio-Economic Developments
The period from 1800-1941 marked changes in various
socioeconomic areas trade, slavery and slave trade, agriculture,
urbanization, and manufacturing.

Reasons for these the socio-economic dynamics in the region and

the world.
 6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure
This time agricultural economy and the need for land for cultivation
and grazing increased

The period changed the pre-existing land tenure system by favoring the
powerful groups to control land.

Agriculture served the purposes of competition for land and surplus

production

This altered people's relation to land, making some privileged and

others unprivileged.

These became the main reason behind Menelik’s territorial expansions.

 Cont’d…
The reason behind Menelik’s expansion was the need for land and
surplus production.

Land required to settle and feed warriors and their families.

Then the processes of the incorporation redefined the way of access

to resources in the general southern region.

Mechanisms to ensure surplus appropriation and impose political

control were institutionalized in the newly incorporated areas.
 Cont’d…
The peacefully submitted ones enjoyed self-administration and were
made to pay qurx-gibir (fixed tax).

Those who resisted were put under the neftegna-gabar system and were
made to pay taxes to the peacefully submitted ones.

The neftegna-gabar system resulted in the evolution of a new tenure

regime in the forcefully incorporated areas.

It encouraged the settlement and exploitative political system which

resulted in the creation of classes like landlords, balabat, gabbar, and
tenants.

The landholders were largely government agents while the local

 Cont’d…
The introduction of the Qalad system (land measurement) was
another development during this time (the 1890s).

This affected access to agricultural resources in many ways including

customary access to land.

In this system, a certain group got access while others were
dispossessed of their lands.

Later, the land was categorized into lam (cultivated), lam-taf (partly
cultivated), and taf (uncultivated) to facilitate taxation
 6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade
 Slaves were among the export items in the history of the region.

Earlier, they were kept as domestic slaves whereas some were sold to
Egypt, the Middle East, the Ottoman, and India through Sudan, the
Red Sea, and the Gulf of Aden.

In the 19th century, slaves served many purposes used for farming,
served in the military, and sold for income.

Local and regional leaders engaged in the slave trade for different
purposes.
 Cont’d…
Bilili (Mahbuba), Hika (Abba Gammachis), and Aster Geno were
Oromo persons who were sold to slavery during those days.

When the demand for slaves increased in the Middle East, slavery
expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn in the 19th century.

Slaves were acquired through raiding, kidnapping, war captivity,

debt bondage, and purchase from open markets.

Major sources of slaves were the southern and southwestern parts

of Ethiopia.
 Cont’d…
Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, and Menilek II tried to stop the
slave trade although not slavery itself.

In 1923, Ras Teferi banned the slave trade which eventually came out
in a decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves.

This was followed by the establishment of the Office for the Abolition
of Slavery in 1932.

The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after

their occupation of the country.
 Cont’d…
After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942 abolishing
any forms of the slave trade and the institution of slavery itself.

The impact of slavery was an obvious social and economic

deterioration of the source areas, families, and suffering of the slaves
themselves.
 6.4.3. Manufacturing
People in the region had long been using endogenous ways of
production.

Later contact with the westerners brought new manufacturing

technologies since the mid-19th century.

This was more encouraged and strengthened in the post-Adwa

period with the opening of embassies and legations in AA.

Among modern manufacturing industries, Holeta Grain Mill and

Massawa Salt Processing were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively.
 Cont’d…
Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis Ababa, Dire
Dawa, Asmara, and Massawa.

These included cement factories, wood and clay workshops,

tanneries, soap, and edible oil plants, ammunition factories,
breweries, tobacco processing plants, and grain mills.

Other privately owned factories like Artistic Printing Press and Ambo
Mineral Water plant were established before the Italian occupation.

After 1928, including in the short-lived Italian occupation, more than

ten manufacturing industries were set up.
 6.4.4. Urbanization
Towns and urban centers in Ethiopia were created in a number of
ways:
Following the Long Distance Trade
Along the Ethio-Djibouti Railway Dire-Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu, and
others
As a military garrison Gobba, Ticho, Gore, Arjo, etc
Centers of politico-religious practice evolved into towns
The medieval royal campsites developed into towns the case in point
was AA
6.5. External Relations
 6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties
After the Zemene Mesafint the closed-door policy ended.

From the 1800s onwards regional rulers began to make

independent external contacts

In the beginning agents were travelers who came to the region for
adventure and scientific research

During this time:

Henry Salt (Br. private traveler) met with Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray
(1805)
 For research and establishing friendly relations between Ethiopia and Britain
 He again came back in 1809 and signed an agreement with the Ras
 Cont’d…
Christian Kugler (Br) came in the 1830s
Edward Ruppel (Gr) came in 1846
Captain W.C. Harris (Br) came to Shawa
J. Bell and W. Plawden came in the 1840s
The Italian Geographic Society came in 1869
All arrived for trade relations and scientific research
 As a result of these contacts, agreements were signed:
 Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and British Captain W. Harris in 1841
 The French Rochet d’Hericourt, in 1843.
 Walter Plowden also signed a treaty with Ras Ali in 1849.

 Other regional leaders also had contacts with the Middle East (Jerusalem).
 When the Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious community in Jerusalem,
Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of England to
request support against the Egyptians in the 1850s.
 Cont’d…
Under Tewodros II, external relation was more directed toward
obtaining foreign support in technology and military

The era of Yohannes IV restoration of lost territories, boundary

delimitation, and defense against foreign interventions

Yohannes IV used war as a last resort against foreign intervention

and mostly accepted negotiation.

To solve the problem with the Egyptians, he signed the Hewett
Treaty with Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt in 1884.

The purpose of the Treaty:

Safe evacuation of Egyptian troops through Ethiopia from Sudan
Return of Bogos to Ethiopia
Opening Massawa for free arms and goods import by Ethiopia
 Cont’d…
However, things were not as expected for Ethiopia (Yohannes IV).

British secretly transferred Massawa to the Italians in 1885.

Yohannes IV traded the Mahdist’s enmity while facilitating safe

evacuation for the Egyptians which led to the Battle of Metema and
his final death on 9 March 1889.

In diplomacy and external relation, Menelik II was somehow more

successful than his predecessors.

He started foreign contact as a king of Shawa when he established a

link with the Italians but this reached its highest with the signing of
 Cont’d…
Menelik II also made boundary agreements with the surrounding
colonial powers which shaped modern Ethiopian boundaries:
French-Somaliland (Djibouti) on 20 March 1897,
British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897,
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May 1902,
The Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900,
British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907, and
Italian-Somaliland in 1908.

Lij Iyasu, during WWI (1914-1918) sided with the Central Powers
believing that the defeat of the Allied Powers (France and Britain)
would lead to the removal of Italy.

He also supported Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920)

against Italy and Britain.
 Cont’d…
By 1923, Ethiopia also became a member of the League of Nations
though it did not save Ethiopia from the 1930s aggression by Italy.
 6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and
Patriotism
1. The Battle of Dabarki (1848) by Kassa Hailu with the Egyptians
but he lost the battle.
2. The Battle of Maqdela (1868) Tewodros II with the British army
but he lost the battle and committed suicide.
3. The Battles of Gundet and Gura (1875&76) Yohannes IV with the
Egyptians and in both cases, the Egyptians were defeated.
4. The Battle of Dogali (1887) Ras Alula with the Italians and the
Italians lost and signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menelik II.
5. The Battle of Metemma (1889) Yohannes IV with the Mahdists
lost the war and was beheaded.
6. Battle of Adwa (1896) Menelik II with the Italians but the Italians
lost the Battle and it marked the symbol of Ethiopia’s
independence.
6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic
Resistance
 A. Background
After their defeat at Adwa (1896), the Italians suspended their
expansionist demand in Northeast Africa for a short time.

They silenced waiting for the right time to come.

By 1922, she became ideologically strong when the Fascist Leader, B.
Mussolini assumed power.

His prime objective was restoring the Glory of Ancient Rome and
revenging the Battle of Adwa.

Initially he was playing a diplomatic card and did not make clear his
agenda of re-invading Ethiopia.
 Cont’d…
As was the case in the pre-Adwa period, Italy followed two policies toward
Ethiopia ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’.
 Subversion weakening internal unity via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray,
Begemedir, Gojjam, and Wollo.
 Rapprochement was done through diplomatic relations through their legation in
AA.

As part of the rapprochement policy, Italians signed a Treaty of Peace and
Friendship in 1928 with the Ethiopian government.

There were also consulates serving the interests of the Italians in Dessie,
Adwa, Debre Markos, and Gondar.

These consulates played a significant role in propagating dissatisfaction

and gathering vital military and political intelligence.

Italians also got indirect diplomatic support from Britain and France for
 Cont’d…
After making all the necessary preparations, Mussolini conducted
aggression on Ethiopia.
The pretext for the invasion was the 1934 Walwal incident no
effective administration in this area.
A Large number of Ethiopians were killed but Italy demanded
reparation from Ethiopia.
Ethiopia refused and took the case to the LN but to no avail.
B. The 1935 Invasion and After