Engineering Materials I

(MEng 2091)

Introduction to Material
Engineering

20/12/2023 Introduction to Materials 1

 Introduction to Material Engineering
2

Material

Material Science Material Engineering

Introduction to Materials 20/12/2023

 Introduction to Material
3
Engineering
 Material science defined as the study of the properties of
solid materials and how those properties are determined by a
material’s composition and structure.
 materials science involves investigating the relationships that
exist between the structures and properties of materials.
 Example - the dramatic role of iron throughout the ages is not
really the result of it being "strong". In reality, iron has been
important because we can change its properties by heating and
cooling it.
 “Materials science is recognized as one of the three fastest
growing technologies, along with biotechnology and
information technology” Nature Publishing Group
Introduction to Materials 20/12/2023
 Introduction to Material
4
Engineering
 Materials engineering is employed on the basis of these
structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the
structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of
properties.

Structure is the arrangement of its internal components. There

are 4 levels:
1. Atomic Structure ( < 10-9m)
2. Crystal Structure ( > 10-9m, < 10-7m)
3. Microscopic Structure (>10-7m,<10-3m)
4. Macroscopic Structure (>10-3m)

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 Materials Science and Engineering
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 An interdisciplinary study that combines metallurgy, physics,

chemistry, and engineering to solve real-world problems with
real-world materials in an acceptable societal and economical
manner
 Create new materials Improve existing materials by
controlling atomic structure

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 Importance of studying Material Science and
Engineering
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 Many applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil,

chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed
to a design problem involving materials. Examples might
include:
 a transmission gear,
 the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an
integrated circuit chip.
“discoveries in materials science have spurred
breakthroughs in every sphere of the global economy”
Dr. Rita Coldwell director, National Science Foundation

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 Classification of materials
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Metals Ceramics

Materials
Composit
Polymers
es

Biomateri Semicond
als uctors
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 Classification of materials
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Metals
 Metallic materials are normally combinations of metallic

elements (Fe, Cu, Al, etc.).

 They have large numbers of non localized electrons.

 Ferrous Metals.
 Non-Ferrous Metals.
Ceramics
 Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic

elements. They are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and

carbides (SiO2, Al2O3, Si3N4, BN, SiC, WC, etc.).

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 Classification of materials
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Polymers
Organic compounds that are chemically based on
carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements
and they have very large molecular structure
consisting of many mers.
Composite
Composite materials are the materials that consist of
more than one material type. A composite is
designed to display a combination of the best
characteristics of each of the component material.
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 Materials of Future
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Smart(or intelligent) Materials

 These materials are able to sense change in environment
and respond to these changes
 It consists of :

 Sensor that detects input signal

 Actuator perform a responsive and adaptive functions.
 Shape memory alloys

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 Materials of Future cont.
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Nano-engineered materials
 It is a science which carefully arrange atoms provide
opportunities to develop mechanical ,electrical and
Magnetic properties. Machines can be produced on a
microscopic level.
Example - miniature robots to do surgery inside the body or
miniature chemical laboratories and instruments that will
continuously analyze blood and dispense medications
inside the body

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 materials science and Engineering delivers
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aircraft turbine

AMD GHz chip

Car Body
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 materials science and Engineering delivers
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Biomimetic materials
shark skin. SEM images of shark skin (middle) and of a
topographic generated by nano/microfabrication (right)

creation of a low-friction surface! (no turbulence, use in

ships) Introduction to Materials 20/12/2023
 Atomic Structure
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 The properties of a material are intimately connected to its basic molecular
structure.
 In order to understand the origin of material properties like Young’s modulus, we
need to focus on materials at the atomic level.
 Two things are especially important in influencing the modulus:
(1) The forces which hold atoms together (the inter atomic bonds) which act like
little springs, linking one atom to the next in the solid state
(2) The ways in which atoms pack together (the atom packing), since this
determines how many little springs there are per unit area, and the angle at which they are
pulled
 Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons,
which is encircled by moving electrons.
 Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the charge magnitude being
1.60 x10-19 C, which is negative in sign for electrons and positive for protons;
neutrons are electrically neutral. Masses for these subatomic particles are
infinitesimally small; protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass,
1.67 x 10-27 kg, which is significantly larger than
Introduction that of an
to Materials electron, 9.11x10 -31 kg.
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 The four electron quantum numbers
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 electron behaves not only as if it were revolving round the nucleus but
also as if it were spinning about its own axis.
 Consequently, instead of specifying the motion of an electron in an atom
by a single integer n, as required by the Bohr theory, it is now necessary to
specify the electron state using four numbers.
 These numbers, known as electron quantum numbers, are n, l, m and s,
where n is the principal quantum number, l is the orbital (azimuthal)
quantum number, m is the magnetic quantum number and s is the spin
quantum number.

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 The principal quantum number
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 The most important quantum number is the principal quantum number

since it is mainly responsible for determining the energy of the electron.
 The principal quantum number can have integral values beginning with
n=1, which is the state of lowest energy, and electrons having this value
are the most stable, the stability decreasing as n increases.
 Electrons having a principal quantum number n can take up integral values
of the orbital quantum number l between 0 and n 1.
 Thus if n=1, l can only have the value 0, while for n=2, l=0 or 1, and for
n=3, l=0, 1 or 2.

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 The orbital quantum number
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 The orbital quantum number is associated with the angular momentum of the
revolving electron, and determines what would be regarded in non-quantum
mechanical terms as the shape of the orbit.
 For a given value of n, the electron having the lowest value of l will have the
lowest energy, and the higher the value of l, the greater will be the energy.
 The remaining two quantum numbers m and s are concerned, respectively, with the
orientation of the electron’s orbit round the nucleus, and with the orientation of the
direction of spin of the electron.
 The remaining two quantum numbers m and s are concerned, respectively, with the
orientation of the electron’s orbit round the nucleus, and with the orientation of the
direction of spin of the electron.
 For a given value of l, an electron may have integral values of the inner quantum
number m from +l through 0 to -l. Thus for l=2, m can take on the values +2, +1,
0, -1 and -2.
 The spin quantum number s may, for an electron having the same values of n, l and
m, take one of two values, that is, Introduction
+1/2 or -1/2 .
to Materials 20/12/2023
 Allocation of states in the first three quantum shells

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 THE PERIODIC TABLE
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 The arrangement is such that all elements arrayed in a given column or group have
similar valence electron structures, as well as chemical and physical properties.
 The elements positioned in Group 0, the rightmost group, are the inert gases, which
have filled electron shells and stable electron configurations.
 Group VIIA and VIA elements are one and two electrons deficient, respectively, from
having stable structures.
 The Group VIIA elements (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are sometimes termed the halogens.
The alkali and the alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca, etc.) are labeled as
Groups IA and IIA, having, respectively, one and two electrons in excess of stable
structures.
 The elements in the three long periods, Groups IIIB through IIB, are termed the
transition metals, which have partially filled d electron states and in some cases one
or two electrons in the next higher energy shell.
 Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA (B, Si, Ge, As, etc.) display characteristics that are
intermediate between the metals and nonmetals by virtue of their valence electron
structures.
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 As may be noted from the periodic table, most of the elements really
come under the metal classification. These are sometimes termed
electropositive elements, indicating that they are capable of giving
up their few valence electrons to become positively charged ions.
 Furthermore, the elements situated on the right-hand side of the table
are electronegative; that is, they readily accept electrons to form
negatively charged ions, or sometimes they share electrons with
other atoms. The Figure displays electro negativity values that have
been assigned to the various elements arranged in the periodic table.
 As a general rule, electro negativity increases in moving from left to
right and from bottom to top. Atoms are more likely to accept
electrons if their outer shells are almost full, and if they are less
“shielded” from (i.e., closer to) the nucleus.
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 Atomic bonding in solids
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 principles of atomic bonding are best illustrated by
considering the interaction between two isolated atoms as they
are brought into close proximity from an infinite separation
 At large distances, the interactions are negligible; but as the
atoms approach, each exerts forces on the other.
 These forces are of two types,
 Attractive(F )
A

 repulsive(FR)
 The magnitude of each is a function of the separation or
The net force FN is the sum of two forces.
FN  FA  FR
Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding 20/12/2023
 Bonding force cont.
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(a) The dependence of repulsive, attractive, and net
forces on interatomic separation for two isolated
atoms.
(b) The dependence of repulsive,
attractive, and net potential energies on interatomic
separation for two isolated
atoms.
When the repulsive and attractive forces are
equivalent the state of equiliburm will exist
FA  FR  0
r0  Equiliburm spacing
E   Fdr   FA dr   FR dr
E  E A  ER
E0  Bonding Energy, The energy required
to separate two atoms at infinite distance
Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding 20/12/2023
 Primary interatomic bonds
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Primary interatomic bonds

Ionic

Covalent

Metallic

Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding 20/12/2023

 IONIC BONDING
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 found in compounds that are composed of both metallic and

nonmetallic elements,
 metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the
nonmetallic atoms.
 In the process all the atoms acquire stable or inert gas
configurations and, in addition, an electrical charge; that is, they
become ions.
 Example, Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding 20/12/2023
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The formation of an ionic bond - in this case between a sodium atom and a
chlorine atom, making sodium chloride

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 IONIC BONDING cont.
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A
EA 
r
B
ER  n
r

A, B and n are constants whose values

depends on a particular ionic system.

Schematic representation of ionic

bonding in sodium chloride (NaCl).

Ionic bonding is termed non directional, that is, the magnitude of

the bond is equal in all directions around an ion.
Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding 20/12/2023
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 Question

 Why does r not decrease indefinitely, releasing

more and more energy, and ending in the fusion of
the two ions ?

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 COVALENT BONDING
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 Covalent bonding appears in its pure form in diamond, silicon and germanium
– all materials with large moduli (that of diamond is the highest known).
 Is formed by the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms.
 Two atoms that are covalently bonded will each contribute at least one
electron to the bond,
 It is the dominant bond-type in silicate ceramics and glasses (stone, pottery,
brick, all common glasses, components of cement) and contributes to the
bonding of the high-melting-point metals (tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum,
etc.).
 It appears, too, in polymers, linking carbon atoms to each other along the
polymer chain; but because polymers also contain bonds of other, much
weaker, types (see below) their moduli are usually small.
 Covalent bonding is schematically illustrated
 The energy of a covalent bond is well described by the empirical equation

Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding 20/12/2023

 COVALENT BONDING cont.
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• Example of methane (CH4).
• The carbon atom has four valence electrons, whereas each of the four hydrogen
atoms has a single valence electron.
• Each hydrogen atom can acquire a helium electron configuration (two 1s valence
electrons) when the carbon atom shares with it one electron.
Schematic representation of covalent
bonding in a molecule of methane (CH4)

Covalent bonds may be very strong,

as in diamond, which is very hard and
has a very high melting temperature,
35500C or it may be very weak, as
with bismuth, which melts at about
270o C

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 A more relevant example of the covalent bond is that of diamond, one of
several solid forms of carbon.
 The shared electrons occupy regions that point to the corners of a
tetrahedron
 The unsymmetrical shape of these orbitals leads to a very directional form
of bonding in diamond.
 All covalent bonds have directionality which, in turn, influences the ways
in which atoms pack together to form crystals

Directional covalent bonding in diamond.

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 METALLIC BONDING
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 Metallic materials have one, two, or at most, three valence
electrons.
 These valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom
in the solid The free electrons shield the positively
charged ion cores from mutually
repulsive electrostatic forces, which
they would otherwise exert upon
one another.
In addition, these free electrons act as
a ‘‘glue’’ to hold the ion cores together

Atomic structure and Interatomic Bonding 20/12/2023

 Summary
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Schematic representation of (a) metallic bonding, (b) ionic bonding, (c) covalent
bonding and (d) van der Waals bonding.
Introduction to Materials 20/12/2023