CHAPTER ONE

1. FAULT ANALYSIS
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Fault (short circuit) is any failure which interferes the normal flow
of current.

After the occurrence of fault the operation of a power system

departs from normal. It becomes abnormal.

Faults give excessive currents & voltages at certain points on

the system.

1
 Cont’d

Short circuit (SC) occur in PS when equipment insulation fails

due to:-
System over voltages (lighting strikes or switching surges);
Falling of branches or trees on the transmission lines,
Insulation contamination (salt spray or pollution) & other
electrical or mechanical causes.
All these are collectively called faults in power systems.

2
 Cont’d

A fault usually results in high current flowing through the lines

(SC current (Isc)>>normal current Inom) & if it is allowed to
persists, may cause thermal and mechanical damage to
equipments. It is therefore necessary to remove faulted
sections of a system from service as soon as possible.
Therefore, short circuit current calculation is an important part of
power system (PS) design.
Fault (short circuit) current calculation enable the system
engineer:
To set relay protection &
Selection of various equipments (circuit breaker, bus bar etc.)
3
 The main objectives of fault analysis:

To determine maximum and minimum three-phase short circuit

current;
To determine the unsymmetrical fault current for single and
double line to line faults, and sometimes for open circuit faults;
Investigations of operation of protective relays;
Determination of rated rupturing capacity of breakers;
To determine fault-current distribution and bus bar-voltage
levels during fault condition.

4
 1.2. FAULT TYPES

There are two main types of faults

Symmetrical faults: system remains balanced; these faults are the

most Sevier one, but relatively rare in occurrence, and are the

easiest to analyze.

Unsymmetrical faults: system is no longer balanced; very

common, but more difficult to analyze

Here the term symmetrical fault refers to those conditions in

which all three phases of a power system are grounded at the
same point. For this reason the symmetrical faults sometimes
are also called three-line-to-ground (3LG) faults. 5
 The most common types of fault on a three phase system are:
Symmetrical
Balanced three phase faults <5% faults
Single line-to-ground (SLG), 60-75%
Unsymmetrical
Line-to-line faults (LL), 5-15% faults
Double line-to-ground (DLG) faults 10-15%
or

a) Three-phase S.C C) L-L.

b) L-L-L, E d) L-L, E

Rf

e) L-E
f) L-E fault with fault impedance Figure 1.1:Fault types
6
 1.3. SYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS
The simplest model of a three-phase short circuit in a power system is
series-RL circuit. For these calculations, normal single-phase equivalent
circuits may be used as an ordinary network calculation.
1.3.1. Series R-L circuit transients

7
Fig.1.2. Current-voltage wave forms in R-L circuit transient
 Cont’d
Consider the series R-L circuit shown in fig 1.2.
Closing of SW at t = 0 represents a first approximation of
three-phase short circuit at the terminals of unloaded
synchronous machine.
For simplicity, assume zero fault impedance; that is, the short
circuit is a solid or "bolted" fault.
The current is assumed to be zero before SW closes &

The source angle a determines the source voltage at t = 0.

KVL equation for the circuit:

di(t)
L  Ri(t)  2Vsin(wt  α) (1.1)
dt
8
 Cont’d
Solution for i(t) is
 t
i(t)  i (t)  i (t)  2V sin(t  α - θ)  sin(α  θ)e T 
ac dc Z  A (1.2)
 

Where

i (t)  2 V sin( t  α - θ) 1.3

ac Z

t
i (t)   2V sin(α  θ)e T 1.4
dc Z

Z  R 2  (ω L) 2  R 2  (X)2 Ω 1.5
9
 θ  tan  1 ωL tan 1 X Cont’d
= R 1.6
R

1.7

i(t) in (1.2) is called asymmetrical fault current.

iac(t) called symmetrical or steady state fault current and it is sinusoid.

The dc offset current idc(t) decay exponentially with time constant T.

The rms ac fault current is Iac = V/Z. The magnitude of the dc offset which
2I
depend on α, varies from 0 when α= θ to ac when α=(θ/2).

For α = (θ - /2) maximum fault current is:

 t
2V sin(t - π )  e T  A (1.8)
i(t) 
Z  2 
  10
 Cont’d
The rms value of i(t) is
2
 -t   2t
I
rms
(t)  ac
 
I (t ) 2  I (t) 2 
dc
   I
ac
2 
  2I e T
 ac

  I ac 1  2e

T
(1.9)

 

Eq.(1.9) can be written as

Irms() = K()Iac (1.10)

 4π
Where K() =


 X 


per unit (1.11)
1  2e

 R 


t = t*f - is time in cycle. K() is called asymmetrical factor &

K() varies from 1 to 3 as it can be seen from (1.11). 11
Series R-L short-circuit currents are summarized in table below.
TABLE 1.1: Short-circuit current for series R-L circuit

Component Instantaneous current (A) Rms current (A)

2V V
symmetrical (ac) i ac (t)= sin(ωt+α-θ) Iac =
Z Z

 2V
DC offset i dc (t)= sin(α-θ)e -t/T
Z

Asymetrical (total) i(t)= i ac (t)  i dc (t) , i rms (t)= i ac 2  i dc 2 ,

with maximum dc offset
I rms ( )  K ( ) I ac

12
 Example 1.1: A bolted short circuit occurs in the series R-L circuit
of Figure 1.2 with V = 20 kV, X = 8Ω, R = 0.8Ω, and with maximum dc
offset. The circuit breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception.
Determine (a) the rms ac fault current, (b) the rms "momentary"
current at T= 0.5 cycle, which passes through the breaker before it
opens, and (c) the rms asymmetrical fault current that the breaker
interrupts.
SOLUTION
a. From table 1.1

b. From (1.10) and (1.11) with (X/R) = 8/(0.8) = 10 and  = 0.5 cycle,

c. From (1.10) and (.11) with (X/R) = 10 and  = 3 cycles,

13
 1.3.2 Balanced fault calculation in power system

The balanced three-phase fault in unloaded synchronous

machine can be modelled by the series R-L circuit of fig.1.2, if
time varying inductance L(t) or XL(t) is employed.

oa - peak value of steady state short-circuit current

ob - peak value of transient short-circuit current
oc - peak value of sub-transient short-circuit current
time (ms)
14
Fig.1.3: Synchronous machine transient
 Cont’d
As we know from machine modelling there are three reactance's Xd’’,
Xd’ & Xd. Therefore different currents flow from time of faults
occurrence. These currents are:
E
g (1.12)
Sub-transient current which flow I ac (0)  I ' ' 
X''
immediately after the occurrence of d
fault. E
Transient current which flow few cycle I '  g
(1.13)
X'
later after the occurrence of fault. d

E
The sustained (steady state) fault g (1.14)
I
current. X
d I’’> I’> I
The sub-transient current (I’’ ) is initial symmetrical current which does
not include dc components. To consider dc components some
coefficient value of 1.4 to 1.8 is used. 15
Example 1.2:
1. A three-phase, 50 Hz machine has the stator windings initially open-
circuited, and the field current adjusted so that the terminal voltage is at
rated value (i.e., 1.0 pu)
The machine has the following time constants:
Xd" = 0.15 pu td" = 0.035 sec
Xd' = 0.40 pu td' = 1.0 sec
Xd = 1.20 pu
Determine the sub-transient, transient, and steady state short-
circuit currents

16
 Cont’d

For practical system a simplified fault current calculation

procedure called E/X method is used. In this method the
Thevenin theorem is applied. Then the fault current If is
If = Vf/Xth or If = I/Xth p.u. 1.15

Where Vf is pre-fault voltage at point of fault and its

value is taken as 1 p.u.
The three phase short- circuit volt-amperes
F  3V I 1.16
MVA L f

17
 Cont’d
● The following assumption will be made in practical short
circuit current calculations:

All generated voltages of synchronous machines are equal & in

phase and represented by sub-transient reactances, hence no load
is considered for fault calculation.
 Generally, load has negligible impact on the faulted phase.
Neglect resistance except at the lower voltage where
resistance is larger.
 All shunt reactance’s neglected (loads, charging &
magnetizing reactance's).

 All mutual reactance’s neglected.

 Induction motors are either neglected (<38kW) or
represented as synchronous machines. 18
1.3.3. The bus impedance matrix for fault calculation
● For general network fault calculation Z-bus is used.
By definition,
Z  Y1 1.17
bus bus
Zbus is symmetrical
The bus impedance equivalent circuit is shown in fig. 1.4.

Fig.1.4: Bus impedance equivalent circuit. 19

 Cont’d
Using Z-bus, the sub-transient fault current can be calculated as:
V
I ' '  F
Fk Z (1.18)
kk

Where, VF is pre-fault voltage at bus k.

Zkk is self impedance of bus k.

20
Example 1.3
Determine the magnitude of the fault currents in the following system
assuming a three phase short circuit to ground of the lines at point F.
The base current for the line is known to be 836.74 amps.

Use the following parameters for the system:

G1: 6.9 kV, 20 MVA, Zs = 0.02 + j0.35 pu
G2: 2.4 kV, 20 MVA, Zs = 0.0667 + j0.8333 pu
M1: 0.48 kV, 20 MVA, Zs = 0.01 + j0.10 pu
T1: 6.9/13.8 k, 20 MVA, Zl = 0.006 + j0.05 pu
T2: 2.4/13.8 k, 20 MVA, Zl = 0.0286 + j0.1714 pu
T3: 0.48/13.8 k, 20 MVA, Zl = 0.015 + j0.08 pu 21
Solution:
a) During the fault the current will seek the easiest path and in this particular
circuit we can assume that the motor will receive no power. Assume we can
ignore the motor and its transformer
b) Single Line per unit equivalent circuit:

c) Find the Thevenin equivalent for the single line circuit at the point of the
fault (F).
The Thevenin voltage is given by the open circuit voltage at F. In an open circuit
it is fair to assume that the voltage will be 1.0 pu.
To find the Thevenin impedance make zero the sources and find the equivalent
Impedance looking at the circuit from the fault location 22
 Cont’d

Combining the last two impedance in parallel we get the Thevenin impedance

d) Determine the per unit fault current from Thevenin Equivalent

23
*
 Cont’d
The maximum fault current is also determine by the impedance (distance)
between the fault and the source.

Example 1.4
A three phase short circuit occurs at point X at 80% of the total line
length. Calculate the fault current with the given information. Base
current of the line is 524.864 amps.

G1: 11 kV, 30 MVA, Xs = 0.0225 pu

G2 : 11 kv, 30 MVA, Xs = 0.030 pu
T: 11/33 kV, 30 MVA, Xl = 0.05pu
Zline = 0.1033 + j0.5165pu 24
 Solution:
a) The fault occurs at 80% of the line given an impedance to the fault
equal to 80% of the line impedance value.

b) Single Line per unit equivalent circuit:

25
 Cont’d
c) Find the Thevenin Equivalent
Assume the Thevenin voltage is 1.0 pu
Zero the sources to find the Thevenin Impedance

26
Cont’d

27
1.4. Symmetrical Components
unbalanced faults Percentage of total faults
single-line to ground 60-75%
double-line to ground 15-25%
line-to-line faults 5-15%

Unbalance (unsymmetrical) fault analysis requires new tools

Symmetrical components
Augmented component models

Allow unbalanced three-phase phasor quantities to be

replaced by the sum of three separate but balanced
symmetrical components
Applicable to current and voltages
Permits modeling of unbalanced systems and networks

28
2.4.1 Method of symmetrical component
To solve problems in unsymmetrical conditions of power system,
method of symmetrical component is used. Any unbalanced phasor
of a three-phase system can be resolved in to three-balanced system
of phasors. The balanced sets of sequence components are:
Positive sequence - equal in magnitude and 120o phase
displacement; a, b, c phase sequence as original phasers.
This sequence is always representing by subscript 1 (Va1,
Ia1 etc.)
Negative sequence – equal in magnitude and 120o phase
displacement; a, c, b phase sequence and have subscript 2
(Va2,Ia2, etc)
Zero sequence components - consisting of three phasors
equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement from
each other and have subscript 0 (Va0,Ia0 etc) .
29
 Cont’d
Representative symmetrical components
1. Positive sequence: 2. Negative sequence: 3. Zero sequence

30
1. Positive sequence phasor: 2. Negative sequence phasor:

1.20
1.19

3. Zero sequence phasor: Operator a identities

1.21 1.22

31
Relating unbalanced phasors to symmetrical components

1.23

In matrix notation

1.24

32
 Cont’d
[A] is known as the symmetrical components
transformation matrix

1.25

Solving for the symmetrical components leads to

1.26

1.27

33
 Cont’d
In component form, the calculation for symmetrical
components are

1.28

34
 Cont’d
Similar expressions exist for voltages
1.29

1.30

The apparent power may also be expressed in terms of symmetrical

Components
1.31

1.32

1.33

1.34

35
Example 1.5:
Obtain the symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced currents

Solution:

36
Cont’d

37
 Example 1.6:
The symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced voltages are

Find the original unbalanced voltages

Solution:

38
Cont’d

39
 Cont’d
Sequence Impedances

The impedance offered to the flow of a sequence current

creating sequence voltages
Positive sequence impedances,
Negative sequence impedances &
Zero sequence impedances.

40
2.4.2. Augmented network models

1. Wye-connected balanced loads

2. Transmission line
3. Generators
4. Transformers

41
 1. Wye-connected Balanced Loads
Model and governing equations

1.35

1.36

1.37

1.38 42
Cont’d

1.39

1.40

1.41

1.42

43
2. Transmission Line

1.43

1.44
1.45

1.46

1.47
44
 Cont’d

1.48

1.49

1.50

1.51

1.52

45
3. Generators
Similar modeling of impedances to sequence impedances
Typical values for common generators
Remember that the transient fault impedance is a function of
time.
Positive sequence values are the same as Xd, Xd’, and Xd”
negative sequence values are affected by the rotation of the rotor.
X2 ~ Xd”
Zero sequence values are isolated from the airgap of the machine.
The zero sequence reactance is approximated to the leakage
reactance.
X0 ~ X L

46
 Cont’d
Generator Model:

Zero Sequence

Positive Sequence

Negative Sequence

47
 Cont’d
Impedance of Grounded Generators:

1.53

48
4. Transformers
Series Leakage Impedance
The magnetization current and core losses represented by the
shunt branch are neglected (they represent only 1% of the total
load current)
The transformer is modeled with the equivalent series leakage
impedance

Three single-phase units & five-legged core three-phase units

The series leakage impedance
is the same for all the sequences

Three-legged core three-phase units

The series leakage impedance is the same
for the positive and negative sequence only.

49
 Cont’d
Wye-delta transformers create a phase shifting pattern for the
various sequences
The positive sequence quantities rotate by +30 degrees
Negative sequence quantities rotate by -30 degrees
Zero sequence quantities can not pass through the transformer
USA standard
Independent of the winding order (D-Y or Y- D)
The positive sequence line voltage on the HV side leads the
corresponding line voltage on the LV side by 30°
Consequently, for the negative sequence voltages the corresponding
phase shift is -30°.
50
 Cont’d
Zero-sequence network connections of the transformer depends
on the winding connection
Primary winding - wye / wye-grounded / delta
Secondary winding - wye / wye-grounded / delta

51
Cont’d

52
 2.5. Unbalanced Network Faults
Common Unbalanced Network Faults
2.5.1. Single-line-to-ground faults
2.5.2. Double-line-to-ground faults
2.5.3. Line-to-line faults
2.5.1. Single Line to Ground Fault

1.54

1.55
53
1.56
 Cont’d

1.57

1.58

1.59

1.60

54
Single Line to Ground Fault with Fault Impedance (Zf):

55
Cont’d

56
2.5.2. Double Line to Ground Fault

1.61
1.62

1.63

57
 Cont’d

1.64

1.65

1.66

1.67
58
 Cont’d

1.68

1.69

59
2.5.3. Line-to-Line Fault

1.70

1.71

60
 Cont’d

1.72

61
 Cont’d

1.73

1.74
1.75

1.76

1.77

1.78

62
 Cont’d

1.79

1.80

1.81

1.82

63
Example 1.7:
The neutral of each generator is grounded through a current limiting
resistor of 8.333 % on a 100 MVA base
Generators are running at no-load at rated voltage and in phase
All network data is expressed on a 100 MVA base
Find the fault current for 3-phs, 1-phs, L-L, L-L-G bolted faults

64
Positive Sequence Network:

65
Negative Sequence Network:

66
Zero Sequence Network:

67
3-phase fault:

SLG fault:

68
L-L fault:

69
DLG fault:

70