CHAPTER ONE

Machine Installation and Safeguarding

 Introduction
If machines are to needed perform well over extended periods
of time; optimal alignment and correct mounting are equally
vital. Correct installation not grant only means good product
quality, but often reduced energy consumption as well.
 Introduction Cont…
Proper machinery installation is a
fundamental element of high equipment
reliability and low life cycle cost.
Conversely, improper installation ensures
machinery will become a chronic source
of downtime, poor product quality,
reduced capacity and high of life cycle
cost.

While installation requirements vary, its

depending on the type of machine and its
function, basic, best practices always
must be followed.
 Machine Foundation
• The
first step in proper installation is to ensure that, the support
structure or foundation has sufficient mass and stiffness/rigidity
to permit the machine to operate in, or near, a state of
equilibrium. It must be reliable one.
• Machine Foundation is a structure used to receive and transfer
static load (from a machine) and the dynamic loads (imposed
during the operation of the machine as a result of imbalances in
the moving parts) to the ground.
• Therefore Machine Foundation hold two loads
A. Static load from machine
B. Dynamic load during operation
Lack of strength and rigidity permits the normal operating forces to
produce abnormal vibration that reduce machine life, decreases
product quality and increase maintenance.
 Machine Foundation Cont…
So during prepare the foundation as it survive and the
foundation must be capable of carrying the applied load without
settling, flexing or crushing.
So how prepare it?
• Foundations for heavy machinery usually are fabricated of
concrete or structural steel by deep removing sand. then
normal practice is to pour an independent concrete pad with
sufficient mass and stiffness/rigidity to support the machine
load and to absorb forces generated during normal operation.
As a guideline, the total mass of the foundation and its related
support structure should be at least five times the total mass of
the machine train.
Machine Foundation Cont…
 Machine Foundation cont…

Depending on the nature of the dynamic loads imposed, machines

may be divided into two groups:
1. Those with periodic disturbing forces that produce forced
vibrations in the foundations. these includes
 machines with parts that exhibit uniform rotation (turbines and
electric motors) or
 reciprocating motion (piston compressors and pumps, gang
mills, and the like).
2. Those with percussive action that cause free vibrations in the
foundations;
 The second group includes machines having impact-type
working members (pile drivers, forging hammers, and molding
machines) or
 Components that exhibit non uniform motion (rolling mills
and forging rolls).
 Machine Foundation cont…

Machine foundations are classified as

1. Monolithic:- which is large and unchanging block or
stone.
2. walled, or
3. frame-type, depending on the structural design.

The first two types may be constructed without

basements (that is, completely embedded in the
earth) or with basements (when it is necessary to
install auxiliary equipment under the machines).
Frame-type foundations usually have basements.
 Machine Foundation cont…
• The materials chosen for machine foundations are mostly
concrete and reinforced concrete.

• Precast and cast-precast foundations are also common in

industrial construction practice, including pile foundations
with a high grillage. Precast structures are suitable mainly for
mounting machines having well-balanced moving parts, such
as turbines.

• Small machines, machine tools, and other equipment are

often mounted directly on a concrete floor, with no special
foundation; in such cases the floor structure is strengthened
with reinforcements.
 Machine Foundation cont…

• In order to reduce the harmful effect of

vibrations, elastic shock absorbers (such as
springs and rubber mats) and dampers
(vibration-energy absorbers) may be built into
the foundation structure.
• Design calculations for machine foundations
must take into account the elastic properties of
the ground, the magnitude of the static and
dynamic loads from the machine, the design
features of the machine, and other factors.
 Anchoring
 Normally, anchor bolts tie the machine to its foundation.

 Proper anchors ensure parts mate rigidly and permanently.

 If the machine is anchored to concrete, permanently fix J-bolts in the

concrete. Size them for adequate holding torque to ensure they won't
work loose over time.
 Anchoring Cont…

• During anchoring select the proper grade and mounting

pattern that's sufficient to lock the machine's mounting
plate to the foundation rigidly.
• But, using hydraulic concrete and straight mounting bolts is
not recommended because they tend to loosen with time
and result in chronic problems.
• Type and configuration of anchor bolts is even more critical
for machines mounted on mezzanines or upper floors.
These anchor bolts must perform two critical functions:
1. fix the machine in place so that it can't flex, bend or
deflect; and
2. Isolate the machine from the foundation so that
generated energies are not transmitted in the
foundation.
Anchoring Cont…
 Isolation
• Machinery produces vibration as an integral part of its operation.
• The machine foundation must absorb this energy or it must be
trapped inside the machine.

• Cross talk energy generated by one machine and transmitted to

another is a chronic source of reliability problems.

• This is especially true in plants with multiple continuous process

lines, such as paper machines, high-speed printing and metal
processing lines.

• The purpose of isolation is to control unwanted vibration so that its

adverse effects are kept within acceptable limits.
 Isolation Cont…

• If the machine is mounted on concrete, the pad should be independent

of the surrounding floor. Normally, the pad will be formed and poured
directly on bedrock.

• A separation of 0.5 in. to 1 in. between the pad and surrounding floor
ensures isolation. This approach serves two purposes:
1. It absorbs energies the machine generates and
2. It prevents outside sources of vibration from entering the machine.

• If the machine must be mounted directly on the floor, isolation must

be achieved through springs or elastomeric pads specifically designed
to absorb or stop vibration. But, take care in the selection.
 Isolation Cont…
۞ Isolators are designed for
specific, relatively narrow
frequency bands, 18 to 21 hertz
for example, and will do little to
isolate frequencies outside that
range.
۞ When properly sized and
installed, these mounting
components do a good job of
protecting machines from both
generated and outside energies
that could be detrimental to
long-term reliability.

۞ Improperly sized or installed,

they are absolutely worthless.
Isolation Cont…
 Leveling
• With few exceptions, machinery is designed to operate in a true
horizontal plane.

• Normally, a spirit level is sufficient to level a machine properly,

but new techniques, such as laser alignment devices, also can be
used.

• The entire machine must be level and in the proper horizontal

plane.

• Failing to do so almost always results in chronic reliability

problems.

• The surfaces of both the machine feet and foundation must be flat
and parallel to eliminate voids or flexing in the final bolted joints.
 Alignment
• The other basic requirement is proper
alignment between driver and driven
units.
• leveling ensures the entire machine is
level to the earth, alignment ensures
motor and machine shafts (driver and
driven shafts) are collinear.
• Generally, reverse-dial indicators or
laser alignment instruments guide the
required alignment adjustments.
• Alignment specifications depend on
the machine type, but normally the
shafts must be parallel and in the
same plane within 0.001 in. to 0.002
 Alignment
• The vendor's installation, operation and maintenance manual
provides installation requirements for the machinery. Follow
these recommendations to ensure proper, trouble-free
operation.
• Installation short cuts or omissions guarantee the machine will
become a chronic maintenance headache.

• One final word - check the installation periodically.

Foundations settle, bolts corrode or loosen, shim packs
deteriorate and alignment drifts.

• By checking the condition of the installation periodically, many

problems that result in lost production time, poor product
quality or elevated costs can be prevented or at least mitigated.
 Shaft Alignment
Shaft alignment is the process
to align two or more shafts with each
other within a tolerated margin.
It is an absolute requirement for
machinery before the machinery is put in
service.
When a driver like an electric motor or a
turbine is coupled to a pump, a generator,
or any other piece of equipment, it is
essential that the shafts of the two pieces
are aligned.
Any misalignment between the two
increases the stress on the shafts and will
almost certainly result in excessive wear
and premature breakdown of the
equipment. This can be very costly.
 Shaft Alignment cont…

When the equipment is down, production might be

interrupted. Also bearings or mechanical seals may be
damaged and need to be replaced.
A proper shaft alignment can prevent this. Tools used to
achieve alignment may be mechanical or optical, like
the Laser shaft alignment method, or they are gyroscope
based.
The gyroscope based systems can be operated very time
efficient and can also be even used if the shafts have a large
distance.
Before such a shaft alignment can be done, it is also
essential that the foundations for the driver and the driven
piece are designed and installed correctly. If that is the case,
than shaft alignment can be started.
 Shaft Alignment cont…
Types of misalignment
• There are two types of
misalignment:
1. Parallel and
2. Angular misalignment.
• With parallel misalignment, the
center lines of both shafts are
parallel but they are offset.
• With angular misalignment, the
shafts are at an angle to each
other.
 Shaft Alignment cont…
• The parallel misalignment can be further divided up in
horizontal and vertical misalignment.
• Horizontal misalignment is misalignment of the shafts in
the horizontal plane and vertical misalignment is
misalignment of the shafts in the vertical plane

• Parallel horizontal misalignment is where the motor shaft

is moved horizontally away from the pump shaft, but both
shafts are still in the same horizontal plane and parallel.

• Parallel vertical misalignment is where the motor shaft is

moved vertically away from the pump shaft, but both
shafts are still in the same vertical plane and parallel.
 Shaft Alignment Cont…

• Similar, angular misalignment can be divided up in

horizontal and vertical misalignment:

• Angular horizontal misalignment is where the driver shaft is

under an angle with the driven shaft but both shafts are still
in the same horizontal plane.

• Angular vertical misalignment is where the motor shaft is

under an angle with the pump shaft but both shafts are still
in the same vertical plane.

• Errors of alignment can be caused by parallel misalignment,

angular misalignment or a combination of the two.
 Machine Guarding
• In Most businesses use equipment and machineries in their
day to day activities; if the machine or equipments not
safely managed, then serious injury and death can occur

• Machinery designers, manufacturers, suppliers and

employers have obligations to ensure machinery is safe to
use and won’t cause harm to operators.

• Employers also must ensure employees and machine

operators are not exposed to hazards.

• The best way to identify the dangerous parts of machinery

is to visualize how someone could be injured. For example,
look for any of the following
 Hazard Controls

• Guards and barriers should be designed so that

people cannot reach over, around or through them
and come into contact with the dangerous parts of
machinery.
• Ideally machinery should be designed so hazards
are eliminated. If this isn’t possible, controls
should isolate or minimize the hazard.
• The objective is to take all practicable steps to
protect employees from harm through machinery,
and equipment used at work is so arranged,
designed, made, and maintained that it is safe for
use.
 Hazard Controls by Elimination
• Machinery hazards can be eliminated through design
features or by substituting a dangerous machine with a
less hazardous one. An example is using automated
material handling or robots.
Practical examples of elimination of hazards by change of
design, using automated material handling
 Hazard Controls by Isolation
• A static fixed guard is the best method and should be
fastened securely to the machine either by welding or with
fasteners that cannot be removed without the use of tools.

• Guards should be constructed and arranged so that it is

impossible for anyone to reach the dangerous parts from any
angle, including from beneath the machine.

• Guards lower than 1600mm should not be used without

additional safety measures because they can still be climbed
over and are not high enough to protect operators from
projectile hazards.
 Hazard Controls by Isolation …
• The gap between the bottom of guard and floor should not be
larger than 180 mm to stop anyone reaching dangerous parts
of the machine.

• Interlocked guards operate by cutting the power to the

machine if the guard is opened, ensuring the user can’t come
in contact with moving parts.

• The guards must be in place and cover dangerous parts while

the machine winds down.
Hazard Controls by Safe Positioning
This method relies on the dangerous machinery parts being
out of the reach of people. A down side to this method is the
hazard can be accessed with a ladder or other means.
 Hazard Controls by
Photoelectric Safety Devices
• If a light beam is broken the machine stops its hazardous
operation.

• Likewise, if the beam is broken by the presence of a person,

the machine cannot re-start.

• Photoelectric safety devices often don’t show external signs

of failure, so they need to be used with a control system that
monitors their operation and will shut down the machine in
the event of a failure.
 Hazard Controls by
Pressure-sensitive mats
To gain access to the dangerous part of a machine, a person
has to step on to a mat or platform, which then disconnects
the machine from its power source.

Pressure-sensitive mats do not usually show any external sign

of failure, so they should be used with a control system that
monitors their operation which in the event of a failure shuts
down the machine.
 Hazard Minimization
• Trip Guards
A trip guard is activated to stop machinery from moving if a user
reaches into a dangerous part of the machine. If this system fails,
there is nothing to protect the user from being injured.

• Automatic Push Away Guards

The guarding barrier moves towards the machine operator when
the hazardous part of the machine operation occurs, requiring
the operator to step back out of reach of the hazard.

A downside to this method is if the guard is not carefully

designed and maintained, it can become a hazard in itself and
cause injury.
 Common Problems
The key mistakes made with machinery guarding leading to
serious injuries and fatalities are:
 No guarding at all, and operators can reach into dangerous
parts of the machine;
 Guards are not securely fastened and can be easily removed
while the machine is in operation;
 Openings in the guard where the operator can easily reach
through to dangerous parts;
 Operators being able to remove guards for maintenance and
not replacing them afterward;
 Interlocked guards that can be opened while moving parts
are still in motion or running down;
 Common Problems …
 Mechanisms from interlock switches can be removed to
override the guards;
 Single light beam safeguard devices were able to be
switched off;
 Interlock switches being overridden due to not using closed
limit switches; and using the interlock guard as a short cut to
activate the machine cycle.
 Ineffective lockout and isolation of power systems;
 Failure of supporting systems such as pneumatic ram free-
fall
 CHAPTER TWO
Machine Maintenance and repair
 Lecture Contents
• Introduction to machinery maintenance and repair
 Maintenance definition
 Maintenance history
 Maintenance type
• Maintenance Guidelines
• Role of Computer in maintenance planning and
scheduling,
• Replacement analysis
 Maintenance Definition
• It is the combination of all technical and administrative actions,
including supervision actions, intended to retain an item in, or
restore it to, a state in which it can perform a required function.
British Standard Glossary of terms (3811:1993) defined maintenance as:

• maintenance is a set of organised activities that are carried out in

order to keep an item in its best operational condition with minimum
cost acquired.

• Activities of maintenance function could be either repair or

replacement, which are necessary for an item to reach its acceptable
productivity condition and these activities, should be carried out
with a minimum possible cost.
 Maintenance History
1. In the period of pre-World War II, people thought of
maintenance as an added cost to the plant which did not
increase the value of finished product. Therefore, the
maintenance at that era was restricted to fixing the unit
when it breaks because it was the cheapest alternative

2. During and after World War II at the time when the

advances of engineering and scientific technology
developed, people developed other types of maintenance,
which were much cheaper such as preventive maintenance.
In addition, people in this era classified maintenance as a
function of the production system. .
 Maintenance History Cont…
3. Nowadays, increased awareness of such issues as
environment safety, quality of product and services makes
maintenance one of the most important functions that
contribute to the success of the industry. World-class
companies are in continuous need of a very well organised
maintenance programme to compete world-wide.
Maintenance History Cont...

-Term terotechnology
introduced.
-Recognition of need to
Development of

present equipment
Maintenance

failures.
-Models for preventive
maintenance developed.
-Increased awareness of:
-Environment
-Safety
Fix the equipment -Quality
when it breaks -Need for reliable equipment.
-Reduction in costs.

Time
Pre-World War II Post-World War II 1980 Onwards

Figure 2.2 Maintenance History

(Adapted From Shenoy, Bhadury 1998)
 Maintenance Objectives
Maintenance objectives should be consistent with and
subordinate to production goals.

The relation between maintenance objectives and production

goals is reflected in the action of keeping production machines
and facilities in the best possible condition.

• Maximising production or increasing facilities availability at

the lowest cost and at the highest quality and safety standards.
• Reducing breakdowns and emergency shutdowns.
• Optimising resources utilisation.
• Reducing downtime.
• Improving spares stock control.
 Maintenance Objectives Cont…
• Improving equipment efficiency and reducing
scrap rate.
• Minimising energy usage.
• Optimising the useful life of equipment.
• Providing reliable cost and budgetary control.
• Identifying and implementing cost reductions.
Maintenance Objectives Cont…

PLANT

Maximising Production Reduce Breakdowns

M
A
Minimising Energy I Reduce Downtime
Usage N
T
Optimising Useful Life of Improving Equipment
E
Equipment Efficiency
N
Providing Budgetary A Improving Inventory
Control N Control
C
Optimising Resources E Implementing Cost
Utilisation Reduction

Figure . Maintenance Objectives

 Types of Maintenance
1. Run to Failure Maintenance (RTF)

2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)

3. Corrective Maintenance (CM)

4. Improvement Maintenance (IM)

5. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)