Propulsion

Systems 1
Fundamentals

1
Fundamentals Review
Energy
Potential
Energy (mgh)
or (mgZ)

Kinetic Energy
(1/2 mv2)

Pressure (P.V)

Heat (Specific
heat capacity
refers)

Etc.
 Newton’s Laws of Motion

1st Law – A body will 2nd Law - The rate of

continue in its state of change of momentum of
3rd Law - To every action
rest or of uniform motion a body is proportional to
there will be an equal an
in a straight line unless it the applied force and will
opposite reaction.
is acted upon by an take place in the direction
external Force of the force.
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Lift
Thrust = m.a

Drag

Weight = mg
 Newton’s
Second Law 𝐹=
𝑚 𝑉2 −𝑚 𝑉 1
𝑡
𝑚 (𝑉 2− 𝑉 1)
ce
𝐹=
r 𝑡
Fo
𝑚 (𝑉 2− 𝑉 1)
𝐹=
𝑡
orce
50kg
F 𝐹 =𝑚𝑎

100kg
 Newton’s 3rd Law
Thrust = Mass x Acceleration (ma)

MV
Equilibrium Reaction Equilibrium Action
Newton’s 3rd Law

Reaction Action
Newton’s 3 Law
rd
Newton’s Laws Applied

Mass
T of Air

𝐹 =𝑚𝑎
𝑚 (𝑉 𝑗 −𝑉 𝑎 )
𝐹=
𝑡
𝑚
𝐹=
𝑡
(𝑉 𝑗− 𝑉 𝑎 )

˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝐹 =𝑚
 Propeller versus Jet Propulsion
Mvaircraft
Mvjet
Propeller - moves
LARGE MASS of
air at low velocity

Thrust = m(Vjet - Vaircraft)

Thrust = M(vjet - vaircraft)

Thrust = m (Vjet - Vaircraft)

Propeller versus Jet Propulsion

Thrust = m(Vjet - Vaircraft) Thrust = m( Vjet - V aircraft )

Thrust = m(Vjet - Vaircraft)

Jet - moves small

mVjet mass of gas at HIGH
mVaircraft VELOCITY
Mass Flow
QuestionMass Flow Jet Velocity
= 80m/s
Rate = Slipstream Rate =
250kg/s Velocity = 50kg/s
16m/s

Jet Aircraft
Propeller Aircraft

Determine the thrust produced if the

aircraft are at flying at 10m/s and 50m/s
respectively.
Mass Flow
QuestionMass Flow Jet Velocity
= 80m/s
Rate = Slipstream Rate =
250kg/s Velocity = 50kg/s
16m/s

Jet Aircraft
Propeller Aircraft

˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚
˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚

𝑇 =250 ( 16 − 10 ) 𝑇 =50 ( 80 − 50 )
𝑇 =1.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑇 =1.5 𝑘𝑁
Mass Flow
QuestionMass Flow Jet Velocity
= 80m/s
Rate = Slipstream Rate =
250kg/s Velocity = 50kg/s
16m/s

Jet Aircraft
Propeller Aircraft

Determine the thrust produced if both

aircraft are at rest.
Determine the amount of kinetic energy in
the wake of the aircraft.
Mass Flow
QuestionMass Flow Jet Velocity
= 80m/s
Rate = Slipstream Rate =
250kg/s Velocity = 50kg/s
16m/s

Jet Aircraft
Propeller Aircraft

˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚
˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚

𝑇 =250 ( 16 − 0 ) 𝑇 =50 ( 80 − 0 )
𝑇 = 4 𝑘𝑁
𝑇 = 4 𝑘𝑁
1 1 1 1 2
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 𝐽 𝐾𝐸 = 2 ( 50)80
2 2
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 𝐽 𝐾𝐸 = 2 ( 250)16
2
2 2
𝐾𝐸 =32 𝑘𝐽 𝐾𝐸 =160 𝑘𝐽
 Energy Conservation

The Law of Conservation of

Energy.

Energy can’t be created or

destroyed, just changed from one
form to another.

1
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 2𝐽
2

1 2
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 𝑎
2
1 2
1 𝐾𝐸 = ( 250) 16
𝐾𝐸 = ( 250) 02 2
2
𝐾𝐸 =0 𝐾𝐸 =32 𝑘𝐽
 Energy Conservation

The Law of Conservation of

Energy.

Energy can’t be created or

destroyed, just changed from one
form to another.

1
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 2𝐽
2

1 2
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 𝑎
2
1 2
1 𝐾𝐸 = ( 50)80
𝐾𝐸 = ( 50)0 2 2
2
𝐾𝐸 =0 𝐾𝐸 =160 𝑘𝐽
 Energy Conservation

The Law of Conservation

of Energy. 𝐾𝐸 =160 𝑘𝐽

𝐾𝐸 =0 𝑘𝐽
𝐾𝐸 =32 𝑘𝐽

𝐾𝐸 =0 𝑘𝐽
Fuel
HV = 43.28 MJ/kg
Mass of Fuel =

Fuel
HV = 43.71 MJ/kg
Mass of Fuel =
 Four-Stroke Engine Operating Principles

• Otto Cycle or Four-Stroke Cycle:

– Induction, compression, power and exhaust strokes.

1.2
 PV Diagram of the Otto Cycle

• Otto Cycle:
– As piston moves to BDC, fuel and air mixture is
drawn into the cylinder.
– Mixture is compressed as piston moves upward
in the cylinder.
– When piston is near TDC the mixture is
electrically ignited.
– Burning mixture heats and expands the air
forcing piston down.
– Piston then moves back up forcing the burned
gases out of the cylinder.

Pressure-volume (PV) diagram of the Otto cycle

(A-B: induction stroke, B-C: compression stroke,
C-D: power stroke, D-A: exhaust stroke)
Pressure
The Otto Cycle
P3 3 Heat

P2
2

P4 4

P1

Start 1

V2=V3 V1=V4
 Diesel Aircraft Engines

• Diesel Engine Design Types:

Two-stroke diesel events

Four-stroke diesel events

1.32
 Diesel Aircraft Engines

• PV Diagram of the Diesel Cycle:

– The diesel engine is a heat engine, and
converts heat into work:
• Work in (Win) is done by the piston
compressing the working fluid.
• Heat in (Qin) is done by the combustion of
the fuel.
• Work out (Wout) is done by the working
fluid expanding on to the piston, this
produces usable torque.
• Heat out (Qout) is done by venting the
exhaust gases.

Pressure-volume (PV) diagram

of the ideal diesel cycle

1.33
Pressure

Volume

The Brayton Cycle

Pressure
The Brayton Cycle
The Constant Pressure
Heat
Cycle
P2
Work taken to
drive the
compressor

Work Required
to drive Useful work
P1 for Thrust.
compressor
Start

Exhaust

V1 V2 Volume
 Force Work and Energy

Work
• One (1) joule of work is done when one (1)
Newton isapplied over one (1) metre
• Work = Force x Distance

Energy • This is the capacity to do work.

Power • This is the rate of doing work

 Example
• A large turbojet engine is being ground
tested in still air conditions. The engine
consumes 260kg of air into its intake
every second and accelerates the air to
an outlet velocity of 500m/s.
• How much thrust is produced?

˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚

𝑇 =260 ( 500 − 0 )
𝑇 =130 𝑘𝑁
 Example
• A large turbojet engine is fitted to an
aircraft flying at 300m/s. The engine
consumes 260kg of air into its intake
every second and accelerates the air to
an outlet velocity of 500m/s.
• How much thrust is produced?
˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚

𝑇 =260 ( 500 − 300 )

𝑇 =52 𝑘𝑁
 Note
• As forward speed of the aircraft
increases, the thrust decreases.

𝑇 =260 ( 500 − 0 ) 𝑇 =260 ( 500 − 300 )

𝑇 =130 𝑘𝑁 𝑇 =52 𝑘𝑁
 Example
• A large turbojet engine is being ground tested
in still air conditions. The engine consumes
260kg of air into its intake every second and
accelerates the air to an outlet velocity of
500m/s.
• How much thrust is produced?
• Calculate the energy in the exhaust flow.

1
˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚 𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 2𝐽
2
1 2
𝑇 =260 ( 500 − 0 ) 𝐾𝐸 = 260 ( 500 ) =2.5 𝑀𝐽
2
𝑇 =130 𝑘𝑁
 Example
• A large turbojet engine is fitted to an aircraft flying at
300m/s. The engine consumes 260kg of air into its
intake every second and accelerates the air to an
outlet velocity of 500m/s.
• How much thrust is produced?
• Calculate the work done on the aircraft and the
power when it is flying at 300 m/s.
˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚 𝑊 =𝐹𝑑=𝑇𝑑=𝑇𝑉 𝑃=𝑇𝑉
𝑊 =𝑇𝑉 W
𝑇 =260 ( 500 − 300 )
𝑊 =52 𝑘𝑁 ( 300 )=15.6 𝑀𝐽
𝑇 =52 𝑘𝑁
 Example
• A large turboprop engine is being ground tested in
still air conditions. The propeller is taking 650kg of
air into its intake every second and accelerates the
air to an outlet velocity of 200m/s.
• How much thrust is produced?
• Calculate the energy in the slipstream.

1
˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚 𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 𝐽
2
2
1 2
𝑇 =650 ( 200 − 0 ) 𝐾𝐸 = 650 ( 200 ) =13 𝑀𝐽
2
𝑇 =130 𝑘𝑁
 Example
• A large turboprop engine is fitted to an aircraft
flying at 300m/s. The engine consumes 260kg of air
into its intake every second and accelerates the air
to an outlet velocity of 500m/s.
• How much thrust is produced?
• Calculate the work done on the aircraft and the
power when it is flying at 300 m/s.
˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 − 𝑉 𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑚 𝑊 =𝐹𝑑=𝑇𝑑=𝑇𝑉 𝑃=𝑇𝑉
𝑊 =𝑇𝑉 W
𝑇 =260 ( 500 − 300 )
𝑊 =52 𝑘𝑁 ( 300 )=15.6 𝑀𝐽
𝑇 =52 𝑘𝑁
 Example
• A high by-pass engine has a cold stream mass flow of 500kg/s
and a hot stream flow of 100kg/s. The cold stream exhaust
velocity is 200 m/s and the hot stream velocity is 300 m/s.
• Calculate hot and cold stream thrust.
• Calculate total thrust.
• Calculate the energy requirement of hot and cold streams.

˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 −𝑉 𝑎 )
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 =𝑚 ˙ ( 𝑉 𝑗 −𝑉 𝑎 )
𝑇 h𝑜𝑡 =𝑚
𝑇 =500 ( 200 − 0 ) 𝑇 h𝑜𝑡 =100 ( 300− 0 )

𝑇 =100 𝑘𝑁 𝑇 =30 𝑘𝑁 Total Thrust = 130kN

1 1
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 𝐽
2
𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑉 2𝐽
2 2
1 2 1 2
𝐾𝐸 = 500 ( 200 ) =10 𝑀𝐽 𝐾𝐸 = 100 ( 300 ) = 4.5 𝑀𝐽
2 2
Types of Engines / Propulsion
Systems
Aircraft
Propulsion
Systems
Piston Engine Configurations
Engine Configurations

PISTON ENGINES
 Two-Stroke Engine Operating Principles

Two-Stroke Engines:
• Simplest form of reciprocating engine that completes its operating
cycle in two strokes of the piston, one up and one down.
• Aviation applications include ultralight and small kit-built airplanes.
• Two types of two stroke engines:
• First type uses crankcase-compression to get the fuel-air mixture
into the cylinder.
• Second type uses a form of supercharger to increase the pressure of
the mixture to force it into the cylinder. None of the mixture goes
into the crankcase.

Inherent Problems:
• Cooling difficulty. Since every downward stroke is a power stroke
there is no cooling interval as in a four-stroke engine.
• Spark plug fouling. Because crankcase-compression engines are
lubricated by mixing oil with the fuel, oil tends to foul the spark plugs.
 Crankcase-Compression Two-Stroke Engine

• Crankcase-Compression Two-Stroke Cycle:

– Compression and power strokes.

On the compression stroke On the power stroke the Piston is starting back up on
the piston moves upward. piston moves down. compression stroke with
compressed mixture in
crankcase flowing into cylinder.
 Crankcase-Compression Two-Stroke Engine

Compression Stroke:
• Piston moves upward compressing mixture in cylinder and lowering pressure in
crankcase.
• This low pressure pulls fresh charge of fuel-air mixture from carburettor
through automatic intake valve.
• When piston is ~30° of crankshaft rotation from TDC spark plug ignites mixture.

Power Stroke:
• Gases inside cylinder expand and force piston downward increasing pressure on
fresh charge in the crankcase.
• Piston passes exhaust port and the burned gases begin to flow out.
• Piston then uncovers the intake port and the compressed mixture from the
crankcase is forced into the cylinder.
• Deflector on top of piston prevents fresh mixture flowing out exhaust port.
• After passing BDC, piston covers the intake port followed by the exhaust port.
• Pressure inside the cylinder increases while pressure in crankcase decreases.
 Supercharged Two-Stroke Engine

Supercharged Two-Stroke Operation:

• When mixture is ignited and burns cylinder pressure is high, and
spring-loaded intake valve is held closed.
• Exhaust port is uncovered as piston moves down on power
stroke, allowing the exhaust gases to escape cylinder which in
turn causes cylinder pressure to drop.
• Once supercharger pressure is greater than cylinder pressure,
fresh fuel-air mixture enters cylinder.
• Piston passes BDC, covers exhaust port and continues upwards
on compression stroke.
• Flow of fresh mixture into cylinder continues until intake valve
closes when cylinder pressure exceeds supercharger pressure.
• Spark plug ignites compressed fuel-air mixture as piston nears
TDC and cycle continues.
 Engine Configuration

In-Line Engines Upright in-line

• Cylinders arranged in single row, either above (upright

engine) or below (inverted engine) the crankcase.
• Advantages: minimal frontal area, easy to streamline.
• Disadvantages: high weight due to long, heavy crankshaft.
• Two types: individual cylinders bolted to the crankcase, or
all the cylinders cast into a single block.

V Type Engines
Inverted in-line
• V-engines are essentially two banks of in-line cylinders
mounted on a single crankcase.
• The cylinder banks are separated by an angle of between
45° and 90°.
• One piston in each bank of cylinders connects to each
throw of the crankshaft.
• V-engines may be either upright or inverted.
Upright V Inverted V
 Engine Configuration

Static Radial Engines:

• Radial engine was developed in order to reduce weight, since
crankshaft in an in-line or V-engine is heaviest component.
• Odd number of cylinders, 3, 5, 7 or 9, radiate out from a
small central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel.
• Crankcase of a static radial attaches to airframe.
• Piston in one cylinder connects to single-throw crankshaft
with a master rod.
• Pistons in all other cylinders connect to master rod by link, or Radial engine

articulating rods.
• Advantage: lightweight for the power they produce.
• Disadvantage: difficult to streamline in a narrow fuselage.
• Largest practical radial engine was
Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major: 28 air cooled cylinders
(4 rows of 7), weighed 3,670 pounds and produced 3,800 hp.
Pratt & Whitney R-4360
Wasp Major
 Engine Configuration
Rotary Radial Engines:
• Popular configuration of engine during WWI.
• Crankshaft attached to the airframe, and propeller and cylinders which were attached
to the crankcase rotated as a unit.
• Engines turned relatively slowly, and rotation of cylinders made air cooling practical.
• Rotary radial engine demonstration.

Horizontally Opposed Engines:

• Horizontally opposed engines have advantages of smoothness
• of operation, small frontal area and light weight.
• Uses fewer and larger cylinders than a radial engine of
• comparable horsepower, and it is similar in weight.
• Generally, rotates faster than radial engines of the same power,
• and the higher RPMs require a shorter propeller to keep tip
• speed below speed of sound.
Cylinder Numbering

PISTON ENGINES
 Cylinder Numbering

In-Line and V-Engines: V Engine

• Cylinder 1 on an in-line engine is cylinder
nearest accessory (anti-propeller) end. 4L 4R
• Cylinders on a V-engine numbered in the same 3L 3R
way, with left and right banks identified by 2L 2R
looking from accessory end to propeller end. 1L 1R

Radial Engines:
• Top cylinder is number 1 with all other
cylinders numbered consecutively in direction
of crankshaft rotation.
• In two-row radial engines, odd numbered
cylinders are in the rear row and even
numbered cylinders are in the front row.
Horizontally Opposed Engines:
• Two major manufacturers are Teledyne-Continental Motors
(TCM) and Textron-Lycoming.
• Both produce engines with cylinders on one side slightly offset
from those on opposite side so each connecting rod has its own
throw on the crankshaft.
• TCM: right-hand bank of cylinders offset to the rear, cylinder 1
is the right rear cylinder.
• Textron-Lycoming: right-hand bank of cylinders offset forward,
cylinder 1 is the right front cylinder.
5
3
1

1
3
5
Teledyne Continental Textron-
Motors Lycoming
6
4
2

2
4
6
Firing Order

PISTON ENGINES
 Firing Order

Firing Order:
• Firing order represents sequence in which ignition occurs in different cylinders.
• Critical to minimizing vibration and achieving smooth running, for long engine life
and passenger comfort.
• Smooth running of a petrol engine is determined by the spacing and the timing of
the firing impulses, or by the sequence of fuel injection in a Diesel engine.
• Inherent smoothness is achieved when all firing impulses are separated by equal
degrees of crankshaft rotation; the closer the impulses, the smoother the
engine.

Four-Cylinder In-Line Engine:

• Four-cylinder in-line engine crankshaft has two sets of throws 180° apart.
• Throws for cylinders 1 and 4 are together, as are throws for cylinders 2 and 3.
• Pistons 1 and 4 are at TDC while pistons 2 and 3 are at BDC.
• Movement of pistons give a firing order of 1-2-4-3 or 1-3-4-2.
 Firing Order

• Four-Cylinder In-Line Engine:

Cylinder 0° 180° 360° 540°

1 power exhaust induction compression
2 compression power exhaust induction
3 exhaust induction compression power
4 induction compression power exhaust

1.19
 Firing Order

• V-8 Engine:
– V-8 engines are essentially two four-cylinder banks on
a single crankcase.
– One cylinder in each bank shares a crankshaft throw.
– The left bank fires 1-2-4-3 while the right bank fires 4-3-1-2.
– This yields a firing order of 1L-4R-2L-3R-4L-1R-3L-2R
(flatplane crankshaft).

• Nine-Cylinder Radial Engine:

– A single row radial engine fires cylinder
1 followed by every second cylinder in
the direction of rotation.
– The firing order of a nine-cylinder radial
engine is 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8.
– All cylinders fire in two revolutions (720°)
of crankshaft rotation.
 Firing Order

• Four-Cylinder Horizontally Opposed Engine:

– TCM and Textron-Lycoming use a 180° crankshaft for their four-cylinder
engines.
– The firing order for a four-cylinder TCM engine is 1-4-2-3.
– The firing order for a four-cylinder Textron-Lycoming engine is 1-3-2-4.
3
1

1
3
4
2

2
4

Teledyne Continental Textron-Lycoming

Motors

1.21
 Jet Engine Layout
Compressor Combustion Exhaust
Chamber Nozzle
mVaircraft
mVjet

Shaft Turbine
 Different Jet Engine Types

Civil turbofan -
Trent

Military turbofan -
EJ200
Variant
Rolls Royce Trent Evolution
Thrust Weight Bypass Pressure Fan Cruise TSFC First run Application
300–316 kN 6,160 kg (247 cm)
Trent 700 5.0:1 36:1[
26 blades 15.9 g/kN/s 1990 Airbus A330

Boeing 777-
334–415 kN 6,078 kg (280 cm)
Trent 800 6.4:1 33.9–40.7:1
26 blades 15.9 g/kN/s 1993 200/200ER/
300

240–250 kN 4,990 kg (247 cm) Airbus A340-

Trent 500 7.6:1 36.3:1
26 blades 15.4 g/kN/s 1999
500/600

334.29–
6,246 kg (290 cm)
Trent 900 374.09 kN 8.7–8.5:1 37–39:1
24 blades 14.8 g/kN/s 2004 Airbus A380

5,936–
285–331 kN (280 cm)
Trent 1000 6,120 kg 10:1 50:1
20 blades 14.34 g/kN/s 2006 Boeing 787

370–430 kN 7,277 kg (300 cm) Airbus A350 X

Trent XWB 9.6:1 50:1
22 blades 13.5 g/kN/s 2010 WB

300–320 kN 7,747 kg (280 cm)

Trent 7000 10:1 50:1
20 blades 14.3 g/kN/s 2015 Airbus A330ne
o

Wikipedia (Accessed Sept 2019)

Different Jet Engine Types -
Mechanical drive

Turboprop - AE 2100 Turboshaft - RTM322

Marine Trent Industrial Trent

Types of Engines
Evolution of Engine Fuel Burn
How a Jet Engine Works

How a Jet Engine Works

The CFM Leap Engine

The GEnx Engine.

Engine Stations
 Gas Turbine Engine Stations
Single Rotor Turbojet

Patm

Compressor P3 P7
P1 P2 P4 P5 P6
Inlet Burner
diffuser
and duct
 Gas Turbine Engine Stations
Double Rotor Turbojet
LPC HPC HPT LPT

Patm

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9
 Gas Turbine Engine Stations
Turbofan

Patm

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8

T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
P1
P2
T1
T2
Engine Stations V2500 Family
Electric Motor Classification

Motors

DC AC

Brushed DC Synchronous

Brushless DC Induction
Electric Motor Classification
Motors

DC AC

Brushed Brushless Induction

Separately Permanent
Self excited Servomotor Universal Synchronous
excited Magnet

Shunt Series Compound

Wound Wound Wound

Long Shunt

Short Shunt
Electric Motor Classification
Motors

DC AC

Synchronous Induction

Polyphase Single Phase Squirrel Cage Wound Rotor

Permanent
Relutance Single Phase Polyphase Single Phase Polyphase
Magnet

Synchronous
Hysteresis Shaded Pole Split Phase Design A Repulsion
Reluctance

Repulsion
Hyseteresis Stepper Capacitor Design B
Start

Synchronous Capacitor Repulsion

Design C
Induction start and run Induction

Resistance
Design D
Start
Overview of a BLDC Motor

• The rotor consists

• The number of poles in
Rare earth metals have replaced
ferrite magnets in EV
applications due to their higher
magnetic density.
mainly of a shaft and a
permanent magnet with
alternating magnetic
poles.
the rotor depends on
the application. Having
more poles can improve
torque but reduce
maximum speed.
Inrunner or Outrunner

Inrunner (left) and outrunner (right) BLDC motors

 In-runner and outrunner

Stat PM
PM or Rotor
Rotor
Stat
or

3-Phase Inrunner Single-Phase

Outrunner