MILLER/SPOOLMAN

LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17TH

Chapter 8
Aquatic Biodiversity
Core Case Study: Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs? (1)
• Biodiversity
• Formation
• Tiny animals (polyps) and algae have mutualistic
relationship
• Polyps secret calcium carbonate shells, which become
coral reefs
Core Case Study: Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs? (2)
• Important ecological and economic services
• Moderate atmospheric temperatures
• Act as natural barriers protecting coasts from erosion
• Provide habitats
• Support fishing and tourism businesses
• Provide jobs and building materials
• Studied and enjoyed
Core Case Study: Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs? (3)
• Degradation and decline
• Coastal development
• Pollution
• Overfishing
• Warmer ocean temperatures leading to coral
bleaching: kill algae and thus the polyps
• Increasing ocean acidity
A Healthy Coral Reef in the Red Sea

Fig. 8-1, p. 168

 8-1 What Is the General Nature of
Aquatic Systems?
• Concept 8-1A Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life
zones cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s
surface, with oceans dominating the planet.

• Concept 8-1B The key factors determining

biodiversity in aquatic systems are temperature,
dissolved oxygen content, availability of food and
availability of light, and nutrients necessary for
photosynthesis.
 Most of the Earth Is Covered with
Water (1)
• Saltwater: global ocean divided into 4 areas
• Atlantic
• Pacific
• Arctic
• Indian

• Freshwater
 Most of the Earth Is Covered with
Water (2)
• Aquatic life zones
• Saltwater life zones (marine life zones)
• Oceans and estuaries
• Coastlands and shorelines
• Coral reefs
• Mangrove forests

• Freshwater life zones

• Lakes
• Rivers and streams
• Inland wetlands
The Ocean Planet

Fig. 8-2, p. 169

Ocean hemisphere Land–ocean hemisphere

Fig. 8-2, p. 169

Aquatic Systems

Fig. 8-3, p. 170

Most Aquatic Species Live in Top, Middle,
or Bottom Layers of Water (1)
• Plankton: free floating
• Phytoplankton
• Primary producers for most aquatic food webs
• Zooplankton
• Primary and secondary consumers
• Single-celled to large invertebrates like jellyfish
• Ultraplankton
• Tiny photosynthetic bacteria
Most Aquatic Species Live in Top, Middle,
or Bottom Layers of Water (2)
• Nekton
• Strong swimmers: fish, turtles, whales

• Benthos
• Bottom dwellers: oysters, sea stars, clams, lobsters,
crabs

• Decomposers
• Mostly bacteria
Most Aquatic Species Live in Top, Middle,
or Bottom Layers of Water (3)
• Key factors in the distribution of organisms
• Temperature
• Dissolved oxygen content
• Availability of food
• Availability of light and nutrients needed for
photosynthesis in the euphotic (photic) zone

• Turbidity: degree of cloudiness in water

• Inhibits photosynthesis
Four Types of Aquatic Life Forms

Fig. 8-4, p. 171

 8-2 Why Are Marine Aquatic
Systems Important?
• Concept 8-2 Saltwater ecosystems are irreplaceable
reservoirs of biodiversity and provide major
ecological and economic services.
 Oceans Provide Vital Ecological
and Economic Resources
• Estimated $12 trillion per year in goods and services
• Reservoirs of diversity in three major life zones
1. Coastal zone
• Warm, nutrient rich, shallow
• Shore to edge of continental shelf
• Usually high NPP from ample sunlight and nutrients
2. Open sea
3. Ocean bottom
Major Ecological and Economic Services Provided by
Marine Systems

Fig. 8-5, p. 172

 Natural Capital
Marine Ecosystems
Ecological Services Economic Services
Climate moderation Food

CO 2 absorption Animal and pet feed

Nutrient cycling Pharmaceuticals

Waste treatment Harbors and

transportation routes
Reduced storm impact
(mangroves, barrier Coastal habitats for
islands, coastal humans
wetlands) Recreation
Habitats and nursery Employment
areas
Oil and natural gas
Genetic resources
Minerals
and biodiversity

Scientific information Building materials

Fig. 8-5, p. 172
Major Life Zones and Vertical Zones in an Ocean

Fig. 8-6, p. 173

High tide Coastal Zone Open Sea
Low tide Depth in
Sea level meters
0

Photosynthesis
50
Euphotic Zone
Estuarine
Zone 100

Continental shelf
200

500
Bathyal Zone

Twilight
1,000

1,500

Water temperature drops 2,000

Abyssal Zone
rapidly between the euphotic
zone and the abyssal zone in an 3,000

Darkness
area called the thermocline .
4,000

5,000

10,000

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Water temperature (°C) Fig. 8-6, p. 173
 Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive (1)
• Estuaries and coastal wetlands
• Where rivers meet the sea
• Seawater mixes with freshwater
• Very productive ecosystems: high nutrient levels
• River mouths
• Inlets
• Bays
• Sounds
• Salt marshes
• Mangrove forests
View of an Estuary from Space

Fig. 8-7, p. 173

Coastal Marsh Ecosystem

Fig. 8-8, p. 174

Herring
Herring Peregrine
Peregrine falcon
falcon
gulls
gulls
Cordgrass
Cordgrass
Snowy
Snowy
egret
egret

Short-billed
Short-billed
dowitcher
dowitcher

Marsh
Marsh
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton periwinkle
periwinkle

Smelt
Smelt

Zooplankton
Zooplankton and
and small
small
crustaceans
crustaceans

Soft-shelled
Soft-shelled
clam
clam Clamworm
Clamworm
Bacteria
Bacteria

Producer Primary to Secondary to higher- All consumers and

to primary secondary consumerlevel consumer producers
consumer to decomposers Fig. 8-8a, p. 174
 Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive (2)
• Seagrass Beds
• Grow underwater in shallow areas
• Support a variety of marine species
• Stabilize shorelines
• Reduce wave impact

• Mangrove forests
• Along tropical and subtropical coastlines
• 69 different tree species that grow in saltwater
See Grass Bed Organisms

Fig. 8-9, p. 174

Mangrove Forest in Australia

Fig. 8-10, p. 175

 Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are
Highly Productive (3)
• Important ecological and economic services
• Coastal aquatic systems maintain water quality by
filtering
• Toxic pollutants
• Excess plant nutrients
• Sediments
• Absorb other pollutants
• Provide food, timber, fuelwood, and habitats
• Reduce storm damage and coast erosion
Rocky and Sandy Shores Host Different
Types of Organisms
• Intertidal zone
• Rocky shores
• Sandy shores: barrier beaches

• Organism adaptations necessary to deal with daily

salinity and moisture changes

• Importance of sand dunes

Living between the Tides

Fig. 8-11, p. 176

 Rocky Shore Beach
Hermit crab
Sea star Shore crab

High tide

Periwinkle

Sea urchin Anemone

Mussel

Low tide
Sculpin

Barnacles
Kelp
Sea lettuce
Monterey flatworm
Nudibranch

Fig. 8-11a, p. 176

 Beach flea
Barrier Beach
Peanut worm
Tiger
beetle
Blue crab Clam
Dwarf
olive High tide

Sandpiper
Ghost shrimp
Silversides Low tide Mole
shrimp

White sand Sand Moon

macoma dollar snail

Fig. 8-11b, p. 176

 Sea star Hermit
Rocky Shore Beach Shore crab
crab
High tide
Periwinkle

Sea urchin Anemone

Mussel

Low tide
Sculpin
Barnacles

Sea lettuce
Kelp
Monterey flatworm Beach flea

Peanut worm Tiger

Nudibranch beetle
Barrier Beach Blue crab Clam
Dwarf
High tide
olive

Sandpiper
Silversides Ghost
Low tide Mole shrimp
shrimp

White sand Sand Moon Stepped Art

macoma dollar snail Fig. 8-11, p. 176
 Coral Reefs Are Amazing Centers
of Biodiversity
• Marine equivalent of tropical rain forests

• Habitats for one-fourth of all marine species

Natural Capital: Some Components and Interactions in a
Coral Reef Ecosystem

Fig. 8-12, p. 177

Gray
Gray reef
reef shark
shark

Sea
Sea nettle
nettle

Green
Green sea
sea
turtle
turtle

Blue
Blue tang
Fairy
Fairy basslet
tang basslet

Parrot
Parrot fish
fish
Brittle
Brittle star
star Sergeant
Sergeant
Hard
Hard corals
corals Algae
Algae major
major
Banded
Banded coral
coral
shrimp
shrimp
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Symbiotic
Coney
Coney
Symbiotic
algae
algae

Zooplankton
Zooplankton Blackcap
Blackcap basslet
basslet

Sponges
Sponges
Moray
Moray eel
eel

Bacteria
Bacteria

Producer Primary to secondary

Secondary to All producers
to primary consumer higher-level and consumers
consumer consumer to decomposers Fig. 8-12, p. 177
The Open Sea and Ocean Floor Host a
Variety of Species (1)
• Three vertical zones of the open sea
1. Euphotic zone
• Phytoplankton
• Nutrient levels low
• Dissolved oxygen levels high
2. Bathyal zone
• Dimly lit
• Zooplankton and smaller fishes
The Open Sea and Ocean Floor Host a
Variety of Species (2)
3. Abyssal zone
• Dark and cold
• High levels of nutrients
• Little dissolved oxygen
• Deposit feeders
• Filter feeders

• Upwelling brings nutrients to euphotic zone

• Primary productivity and NPP

 8-3 How Have Human Activities
Affected Marine Ecosystems?
• Concept 8-3 Human activities threaten aquatic
biodiversity and disrupt ecological and economic
services provided by saltwater systems.
 Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Marine Systems
• Major threats to marine systems
• Coastal development
• Overfishing
• Use of fishing trawlers
• Runoff of nonpoint source pollution
• Point source pollution
• Habitat destruction
• Introduction of invasive species
• Climate change from human activities
• Pollution of coastal wetlands and estuaries
Major Human Impacts on Marine Ecosystems and Coral
Reefs

Fig. 8-13, p. 179

 Natural Capital Degradation
Major Human Impacts on Marine
Ecosystems and Coral Reefs
Marine Ecosystems Coral Reefs

Half of coastal wetlands lost to Ocean warming

agriculture and urban development
Rising ocean acidity
Over one-fifth of mangrove forests lost to Soil erosion
agriculture, development, and shrimp
farms since 1980 Algae growth from fertilizer runoff
Bleaching
Beaches eroding because of coastal
development and rising sea levels Rising sea levels
Ocean bottom habitats degraded by Increased UV exposure
dredging and trawler fishing Damage from anchors
At least 20% of coral reefs severely damaged Damage from fishing and
and 25–33% more threatened diving Fig. 8-13, p. 179
 Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay—an
Estuary in Trouble (1)
• Largest estuary in the US; polluted since 1960

• Human population increased

• Point and nonpoint sources raised pollution

• Phosphate and nitrate levels too high

• Excess sediments from runoff and decreased

vegetation
 Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay—an
Estuary in Trouble (2)
• Oysters, a keystone species, greatly reduced

• 1983: Chesapeake Bay Program

• Integrated coastal management with local, state,
federal governments and citizens’ groups

• 2008 update:
• 25 years and $6 billion
• Program met only 21% of goals
• Water quality “very poor”
Chesapeake Bay

Fig. 8-14, p. 180

Drainage basin

No oxygen

Low concentrations of
oxygen

Fig. 8-14, p. 180

 8-4 Why Are Freshwater Ecosystems
Important?
• Concept 8-4 Freshwater ecosystems provide major
ecological and economic services, and are
irreplaceable reservoirs of biodiversity.
 Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others (1)
• Standing (lentic) bodies of freshwater
• Lakes
• Ponds
• Inland wetlands

• Flowing (lotic) systems of freshwater

• Streams
• Rivers
 Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others (2)
• Four zones based on depth and distance from shore
1. Littoral zone
• Near shore where rooted plants grow
• High biodiversity
• Turtles, frogs, crayfish, some fish

2. Limnetic zone
• Open, sunlight area away from shore
• Main photosynthetic zone
• Some larger fish
Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others (3)
3. Profundal zone
• Deep water too dark for photosynthesis
• Low oxygen levels
• Some fish

4. Benthic zone
• Decomposers
• Detritus feeders
• Some fish
• Nourished primarily by dead matter
Major Ecological and Economic Services Provided by
Freshwater Systems

Fig. 8-15, p. 181

 Natural Capital
Freshwater Systems

Ecological Services Economic Services

Climate moderation Food

Nutrient cycling
Drinking water
Waste treatment
Irrigation water
Flood control

Groundwater Hydroelectricity
recharge
Habitats for many Transportation
species corridors
Genetic resources
and biodiversity Recreation

Scientific information Employment

Fig. 8-15, p. 181
Distinct Zones of Life in a Fairly Deep Temperate Zone
Lake

Fig. 8-16, p. 182

 Painted turtle Blue-winged
teal

Green frog
Muskrat

Pond snail
Littoral zone Plankton

Diving beetle
Northern pike

Yellow perch
Bloodworms
Fig. 8-16, p. 182
 Some Lakes Have More Nutrients
Than Others
• Oligotrophic lakes
• Low levels of nutrients and low NPP
• Very clear water
• Eutrophic lakes
• High levels of nutrients and high NPP
• Murky water with high turbidity
• Mesotrophic lakes
• Cultural eutrophication of lakes from human input
of nutrients
The Effect of Nutrient Enrichment
on a Lake

Fig. 8-17, p. 182

 Stepped Art
Fig. 8-17, p. 182
 Freshwater Streams and Rivers Carry
Water from the Mountains to the Oceans
• Surface water

• Runoff

• Watershed, drainage basin

• Three aquatic life zones

• Source zone
• Transition zone
• Floodplain zone
Three Zones in the Downhill Flow of Water

Fig. 8-18, p. 183

 Lake Glacier
Rain and snow Headwaters
Rapids
Waterfall
Tributary
Flood plain Oxbow lake
Salt marsh
Delta
Deposited
sediment
Ocean
Source Zone

Transition Zone

Water
Sediment
Floodplain Zone

Fig. 8-18, p. 183

 Lake
Rain and
Glacier
snow
Rapids
Waterfall
Tributary
Flood plain
Oxbow lake
Salt marsh
Delta Deposited
sediment

Ocean
Source Zone

Transition Zone

Water
Sediment
Floodplain Zone

Stepped Art
Fig. 8-18, p. 183
 Case Study: Dams, Deltas, Wetlands,
Hurricanes, and New Orleans
• Coastal deltas, mangrove forests, and coastal
wetlands: natural protection against storms

• Dams and levees reduce sediments in deltas:

significance?

• New Orleans, Louisiana, and Hurricane Katrina:

August 29, 2005

• Global warming, sea rise, and New Orleans

New Orleans, Louisiana Flooded by Hurricane Katrina

Fig. 8-19, p. 185

Projection of New Orleans if the Sea Level Rises 0.9 Meter

Fig. 8-20, p. 185

 Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are
Vital Sponges (1)
• Marshes

• Swamps

• Prairie potholes

• Floodplains

• Arctic tundra in summer

 Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are
Vital Sponges (2)
• Provide free ecological and economic services
• Filter and degrade toxic wastes
• Reduce flooding and erosion
• Help to replenish streams and recharge groundwater
aquifers
• Biodiversity
• Food and timber
• Recreation areas
 8-5 How Have Human Activities
Affected Freshwater Ecosystems?
• Concept 8-5 Human activities threaten biodiversity
and disrupt ecological and economic services
provided by freshwater lakes, rivers, and wetlands.
 Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Freshwater Systems
• Impact of dams and canals on rivers

• Impact of flood control levees and dikes along rivers

• Impact of pollutants from cities and farms on

streams, rivers, and lakes

• Impact of drained wetlands

 Three Big Ideas
1. Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover
almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface, and
oceans dominate the planet.

2. The earth’s aquatic systems provide important

ecological and economic services.

3. Human activities threaten biodiversity and disrupt

ecological and economic services provided by
aquatic systems.