The Central Nervous System

Overview of the Nervous System

 There are three classes of neurons.

• An afferent neuron sends signals

toward the CNS. It generates
action potentials from sensory
receptors at its peripheral end. It
has a long axon and is found
mainly in the PNS.
• An efferent neuron sends signals
away from the CNS to an effector
organ. It has a long peripheral
axon in the PNS.
• An interneuron is found entirely
within the CNS. It lies between
afferent and efferent neurons.
Glial cells do not send signals. They support
interneurons physically, metabolically, and
functionally. There are four main kinds.
• Microglia are the immune defense of the CNS.
• They are scavengers.
• Ependymal cells line the internal cavities of the CNS.
• The oligodendrocyte forms myelin sheaths around axons in
the CNS.
• The astrocyte has many functions:
• holding neurons together
• guiding neurons during development
• establishing a blood-brain barrier
• repairing brain injuries
• playing a role in neurotransmitter activity
• taking up excess K+ from the brain ECF
The CNS is protected several ways.
1. The cranium encloses the brain. The vertebral
column encloses the spinal cord.
2. It is wrapped by several meninges: the outer dura
mater, the middle arachnoid mater, and the
innermost pia mater.
3. The brain is surrounded by the cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).
4. The blood-brain barrier limits access of blood-
borne substances to the brain.
CSF
 The blood brain barrier is highly
selective.
• It is a series of capillaries that regulate the
exchange between the blood and the brain.
• These capillaries allow a limited number of
substances to pass from the blood to brain cells.
• The brain needs a constant input of oxygen and
glucose from the blood.
 The CNS consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
• The outline for brain anatomy is:

1. Brain stem
2. Cerebellum
3. Forebrain
a) Diencephalon
i. Hypothalamus
ii. Thalamus
b) Cerebrum
i. Basal nuclei
ii. Cerebral cortex
The brain stem is continuous with the
spinal cord.
• It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It controls life-
sustaining processes such as breathing and digestion.
• The cerebellum is attached to the top rear part of the brainstem.
• It maintains balance, enhances muscle tone, and coordinates/plans
skilled voluntary muscle activity.
The
diencephalon is
on top of the
brain stem. It
houses the:
• hypothalamus - It
controls many
homeostatic functions
that maintain the
stability of the internal
environment.
• thalamus - It performs
some primitive sensory
processing.
The cerebrum is on
top of the lower
brain regions. It is
highly developed in
humans.
• The cerebral cortex is its
highly convoluted, outer
layer of gray matter. It
covers an inner core of
white matter.
• The cerebrum has an inner
core of basal nuclei located
deep within the white
matter.
Section 2
• List FOUR types of glial cells.
• Name the meninges from outermost to innermost.
Answers
• Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia and
ependymal cells

• Dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater

 The cerebral cortex has six well-
defined layers.

• These layers are organized into

functional vertical columns.

• The neurons within a column function

as a team, involved with different
aspects of the same activity.
 The cerebral cortex has four lobes. Each
is specialized for different activities.
• The lobes and some functions are:
• occipital - initial processing of visual input
• temporal - integration of all sensory input
• parietal - somatosensory processing; Each
region of its cortex receives somesthetic
(somatosensory) and proprioceptive input
from a specific body area. This part of the
cortex receives most input from the
opposite body side.
• frontal - voluntary motor activity, speaking
ability, and elaboration of thought;
Stimulation of different areas of its primary
motor cortex moves different body
regions.
In addition to the primary motor cortex,
other cerebral brain regions that function
for motor control are:

• premotor cortex - It lies on the lateral surface of

each hemisphere anterior to the primary motor
cortex.
• supplementary motor cortex - It lies on the medial
surface of each hemisphere anterior to the primary
motor cortex.
• posterior parietal cortex - It is posterior to the
primary somatosensory cortex.
 Supplementary motor area Primary motor cortex Somatosensory cortex

Central
Premotor cortex sulcus Posterior parietal cortex

Parietal lobe
Prefrontal association cortex
Wernicke’s area

Frontal lobe
Parietal-temporal-occipital
Broca’s area association cortex

Primary auditory cortex

Cerebellum
Occipital lobe

Limbic association cortex

Temporal lobe

Primary visual cortex

Brain stem

Spinal cord

Fig. 5-7a, p. 118

The mapping of somatotopic areas varies
slightly between individuals and is in a
dynamic steady state.

• These areas are influenced by use-dependent

competition.
• They are modified by experience.
• The plasticity of the brain can be remodeled in
response to varying demands.
Different aspects of language are
controlled by different cortical areas.

• Broca’s area is responsible for speaking ability.

• Wernicke’s area functions for language
comprehension.
• Various language disorders are localized in
different regions of the cerebral cortex. Damage
to these areas can explain the origin of these
disorders.
 Supplementary motor area Primary motor cortex Somatosensory cortex

Central
Premotor cortex sulcus Posterior parietal cortex

Parietal lobe
Prefrontal association cortex
Wernicke’s area

Frontal lobe
Parietal-temporal-occipital
Broca’s area association cortex

Primary auditory cortex

Cerebellum
Occipital lobe

Limbic association cortex

Temporal lobe

Primary visual cortex

Brain stem

Spinal cord

Fig. 5-7a, p. 118

The associative areas of the cerebral cortex
carry out many higher functions. These areas
are:

• prefrontal association cortex - Its functions include

planning for voluntary activity, decision-making,
creativity, and developing personality traits.
• parietal-temporal-occipital association cortex - It
integrates somatic, auditory, and visual sensations
from these three lobes.
• limbic association cortex - It is involved with
motivation, emotion, and memory
 Supplementary motor area Primary motor cortex Somatosensory cortex

Central
Premotor cortex sulcus Posterior parietal cortex

Parietal lobe
Prefrontal association cortex
Wernicke’s area

Frontal lobe
Parietal-temporal-occipital
Broca’s area association cortex

Primary auditory cortex

Cerebellum
Occipital lobe

Limbic association cortex

Temporal lobe

Primary visual cortex

Brain stem

Spinal cord

Fig. 5-7a, p. 118

The cerebral hemispheres have
some degree of specialization.
• The left cerebral hemisphere excels in performing
logical, analytical, sequential, and verbal tasks,
• The right cerebral hemisphere excels in spatial
perception and artistic and musical talents.
The electroencephalogram is a record of
postsynaptic activity of cortical neurons.
• It consists of various wave patterns.
• It is used as a clinical tool in diagnosis of cerebral dysfunction.
• It can distinguish various sleep stages.
• It is used for legal determination of brain death.
Section 3
Recap
a)State the functions of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s
area and speculate what would occur if there was a
lesion in Broca’s area.
b)Define “plasticity”
Answers:
a) Broca’s area is responsible for speaking ability.
Wernickes area is concerned with language
comprehension. If there was a lesion in Broca’s
area, it therefore may affect the individuals
ability to speak.
b) The ability of the brain to change or be
functionally remodelled in response to the
demands laced on it
The basal nuclei have an inhibitory role in
motor control. Their functions include:

• inhibiting muscle tone throughout the body

• selecting and maintaining purposeful muscle activity while inhibiting
useless movement
• monitoring and controlling slow, sustained contractions
The thalamus is a relay station. It is also a
synaptic integrating center for processing
sensory input on its way to the cerebral cortex.

• The hypothalamus regulates many homeostatic functions.

• They include:
• controlling body temperature
• controlling thirst and urine production
• controlling food intake
• controlling anterior pituitary hormone secretion
• production of posterior pituitary hormones
• controls uterine contractions and milk ejection
• serves as an ANS coordinating center
• plays a role in emotional and behavioral patterns
The limbic system functions with
the higher cortex.
• It plays a key role in emotion.
• It works with the higher cerebral cortex to control
behavioral patterns.
• The limbic system has reward and punishment
centers.
• The neurotransmitters in the pathways for
emotional behavior include norepinephrine,
dopamine, and serotonin.
Memory is laid down in stages.
• Memory is the storage of acquired knowledge for later
recall.
• A memory trace is a neural change responsible for
retention or storage of knowledge. These traces are
present in multiple regions of the brain.
• Memory can be long-term or short-term. Short-term involves
transient changes in synaptic activity. Long-term memory involves
formation of new, permanent synaptic connections.
• The hippocampus plays a vital role in short-term memory. It
works with other brain regions for declarative memories.
• The cerebellum functions for procedural memories. The prefrontal
cortex functions for working memory.
The functions of the cerebellum include body
balance and the planning and executing of voluntary
movement.

• The vestibulocerebellum maintains

balance and controls body movement.
• The spinocerebellum enhances muscle
tone and coordinates skilled, voluntary
movements.
• The cerebrocerebellum plays a role in
planning and initiating voluntary
movement.
 The brain stem is the medulla, pons, and
midbrain.
• It is a vital link between the spinal
cord and higher brain regions.
• Most of the cranial nerves are
connected to the brain stem.
• It has centers to control heart
and blood vessel function.
• It plays a role in modulating
the sense of pain.
• It plays a role in regulating
muscle reflexes involved in
equilibrium and posture.
• The reticular formation ranges
from the brainstem to the
thalamus. It controls cortical
alertness and direct attention.
• It has sleep centers.
Sleep is an active process consisting of
alternating periods of slow-wave and
paradoxical sleep. The states of alertness in
decreasing level of arousal are:

• maximum alertness
• wakefulness
• sleep
• coma
• Sleep has distinct EEG patterns and behavioral
patterns.
• The sleep-wake cycle is controlled by interactions
among three neural systems.
• The function of sleep is unclear.
The spinal cord extends through the vertebral
canal. 31 pairs of spinal nerves are connected
to it.

• The cord ranges vertically from a large hole at the

base of the skull.
• The attached spinal nerve pairs are:
• eight cervical
• twelve thoracic
• five lumbar
• five sacral
• one coccygeal
The spinal cord consists of inner
gray matter and outer white matter.
The white matter of the spinal cord
consists of tracts for vertical relay.
• These tracts are ascending (e.g., lateral spinothalamic) and descending
(e.g., vertical corticospinal).
• Ascending tracts range through the entire CNS, sending signals from
the cord up through regions of the brain.
• Descending tracts range through the entire CNS, sending signals away
from higher brain centers down through the cord.
The gray matter of the spinal cord consists of three
pairs of horns. It contains internuncial neurons. The
pairs of horns are ventral, lateral, and dorsal.

• A nerve is a bundle of peripheral axons. Spinal nerves contain afferent

and efferent fibers.
• One function of the internuncial neurons in the spinal cord gray
matter is to integrate basic reflexes. They are part of the reflex arc, a
neural pathway that produces reflexes.
The components of the reflex arc are:
• 1.Receptor
• 2.Afferent pathway
• 3.Integrating center
• 4.Efferent pathway
• 5.Effector

• The receptor detects a stimulus (e.g.,

touching a hotplate).

• The effector makes the response of the

reflex (e.g., withdrawal of the arm).

• The integrating center is within the gray

matter of the spinal cord. Its neurons
connect a given input (from the afferent
pathway) to the proper output (from
the efferent pathway).