Atomic Physics

Planck’s hypothesis and Bohr’s atomic

In the late 19th century, electromagnetic radiation from objects was studied. It was
found that the rate of electromagnetic wave propagation of hot objects depends on
the temperature and the object’s surface. By knowledge from physics Models
cannot explain this electromagnetic radiation. Physics have proposed a hypothesis
to explain this.This is the cornerstone of quantum physics. It can also be used to
explain the spectrum of atoms of hot gases, as will be studied in this topic.
 Electromagnetic radiation of black objects
All objects have temperatures above 0 kelvin, including our bodies. Black objects are
generally defined as those that absorb all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of the
wavelength. When electromagnetic radiation, such as light, strikes a black object, the object
absorbs the energy and converts it into heat rather than reflecting or transmitting it.
The relationship between temperature and the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object
is described by Planck's law. According to Planck's law, the intensity and distribution of the
radiation emitted by a black body (an idealized object that absorbs all radiation) depend on
its temperature.
The wavelength at which the peak intensity occurs is given by Wien's displacement law,
which states that the peak wavelength (λ_max) is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature (T) of the black body:
λmax ⋅T=constant
​

This means that as the temperature of a black object increases, the peak of its emission
spectrum shifts towards shorter wavelengths.

Additionally, Stefan-Boltzmann law describes the total energy radiated by a black body and is
given by:

E=σ⋅T4
 ● E is the total energy radiated per unit surface area,
● σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
● T is the temperature of the black body.

This law implies that the total energy radiated by a black object increases rapidly with
temperature.

In summary, black objects absorb electromagnetic radiation and emit thermal radiation
according to Planck's law, with the intensity and distribution of the radiation depending on
the temperature of the object. As the temperature increases, the peak of the emission
spectrum shifts to shorter wavelengths, and the total energy radiated increases according to
the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Planck’s hypothesis conclude that the energy absorbed or radiated by black objects.
Can only have certain values and this value will be an integer equal ԑ which is equal to hf
called the quantum of energy, where f is the frequency of electromagnetic waves that is
absorbed or radiated will have a value according to the equation

E=nԑ
Where ԑ= hf
E=nhf

Where h is Planck’s constant which is approximately 6.626 * 10 -34 jokes sec

Angular Momentum (L):
Angular momentum is a measure of the rotational motion of a particle. In quantum
mechanics, it is quantized, meaning it can only take on certain discrete values. The
quantization of angular momentum is a consequence of the wave-like nature of particles, as
described by the de Broglie hypothesis.

This formula indicates that the angular momentum is quantized in discrete units, and it is an
integral multiple of
ℏ
ℏ. The quantization of angular momentum is a fundamental aspect of quantum mechanics
and plays a key role in understanding the allowed energy levels and stability of electrons in
atoms.
Angular Momentum Quantization Rule:

The angular momentum of an electron in an orbit is quantized and is given by the formula:

L=nℏ

Where:

L is the angular momentum.

n is the principal quantum number (a positive integer representing the energy level or shell).
ℏ is the reduced Planck's constant (

● ℏ= h/ 2 π

​
The momentum we studied earlier, p=mv is called linear momentum. There is
another type of momentum called angular momentum. In the case of an object
moving with linear momentum p around a fixed point in a circle of radius, the
angular momentum L will be equal to the product of the linear momentum and
radius according to the equation L=pr=mvr with units of joules per second.