SERVICEABILITY WEAR AND ABRASION

Terms and Definitions

 Serviceability: An article which is serviceable is capable of

performing useful service for which it is intended ; its serviceability
ceases when it can no longer do so.
 Wear : It is the net result of number of ‘agencies’ which reduces the
serviceability of an article. Some of the more important of these are
bending and stretching, tearing, abrasion, laundering and cleaning.
 Abrasion: Abrasion is just one aspect of wear and is the rubbing
away of component fibres and yarns of fabric.
Abrasion classification

Sr.No Abrasion Explanation

Type
1 Plane or Flat The flat area of the fabric is abraded here.
Abrasion

2 Edge This kind of Abrasion occurs at folds and

Abrasion collars.
3 Flex In this case rubbing is accompanied by
Abrasion flexing and bending
Points to be considered before carrying out
abrasion test:
1. Conditioning of Specimen
2. Type of abrasion
3. Type of abradants
4. Pressure
5. Speed
6. Tension
7. Direction of abrasion
8. End-point of the test
 Condition of the Specimen:

 Unless directed otherwise the fabric sample should be conditioned in the standard

atmosphere before testing.

 Choice of Testing Instrument:

 The type of instrument to be used depends upon which type of abrasive test is required

e.g. flat abrasion, flex abrasion etc.

 Choice of Abrasive Motion:

 The rubbing movement may be reciprocating rotary or multidirectional. On some

instrument the movement can be varied.

 Direction of Abrasion:

 The direction of abrasion may be unidirectional in warp or weft directions or at an angle

to warps and wefts.

 Choice of Abradant:

 The severity of abrasion will vary with the nature of abradant. e.g.
Steel, silicon carbide will give constant abrasive qualities. Second
piece of the tested fabric, a standard worsted o canvas fabric, emery
cloth of various grades can be used as abradants but there is risk of
changing abrasive properties of abradant.

 Backing of Specimen:

 The hardness of the backing material given for the specimen can
affect the results. In some tests hard backing used in some other a
felt or foam rubber backing is used.
 Cleanliness of the Specimen and Instrument:

 The region where abrasion takes place should be handled minimum. The
abrading region should be free from foreign matters such as the wax, graphite
etc. as they act as lubricants and end point will be affected. Also the blade of
flex abrasion tester must be free from spotlessly clean and free from grease.

 Tension on the Specimen :

 Variation of the tension on the specimen will alter the result, hence the
standardized methods of mounting the specimen should be used.

 The Pressure Between the Abradant and the Specimen:

 The extent of abrasion will be affected by the pressure applied .High pressures
will reduce the time taken to reach the end point of the test but the
acceleration of the destruction of the fabric may lead to the false conclusions.
Hence suitable standards must be followed .
 End Point of the Test:

 The end point may be the completion of given number of

abrasion cycles the appearance of hole or broken

threads ,rupture of the specimen. Automatic stop motions are

often built into the tester so that motor is switched off as soon

as a hole appear or specimen breaks.

ASSESMENT OF ABRASION DAMAGE

1. Comparison of abraded specimen with an unabraded specimen.

2. The number of cycles required to produce a hole, broken thread or
broken strip.
3. Loss in weight (often plotted this against number of cycles)
4. Change in thickness: e.g. loss of pile height. in some cases thickness
is increased due to raising of napping effect, particularly in the early stages of
the test.
5. Loss in strength: tensile ,bursting or tearing strength. The los may be
expressed in percentage of unabraded strength.
6. Change in properties e.g. air permeability, lustre.
7. Microscopic examination of the damage to yarn and fibres.
 The interpretation of Results:

 No general rule is given on the interpretation of the results

from abrasion tests. The effect of special finishing treatments

can be assessed by determining the abrasion resistance of the

fabric before and after the finishing treatments . Abrasion

resistance test is one of the series of different tests which are

used to the merit rating of the fabric.

Abrasion Testers:
 THE B.F.T. ABRASION TESTING MACHINE:
 Features of the instrument:

 The abradant used in the various accessories is made of special steel whose abrasive
characteristics remain constant and reproducible.

 The machine is sturdy and runs smoothly at higher speeds

 The results of tests on the machine can be analyzed and expressed numerically and the
fabric can be ranked in order of merit

 The machine is mounted on a rigid platform P. A solid aluminum carriage C is given

reciprocating motion. The reciprocation of the carriage is for a stroke of 1 inches and is
achieved by crank and connecting rod mechanism revolving at 700 revolutions/minute. A
digital counter records the number of cycles. The head H mounted over the top of
reciprocating carriage moves vertically due to the parallel link motion. Counterpoise
weights are used to keep the movements in balance. The control unit and the electric
motor are mounted below the platform.
THE B.F.T. ABRASION TESTING MACHINE:

 FLEX TEST:
 Flex Test:

 The abradant is a flex plate which is a stainless steel plate about

0.037 inch thick with one edge tapered off and rounded to 0.017
inch diameter. This plate is given reciprocating motion. Tension is
applied to the test specimen by the weight on a bell crank lever
acting through a chain link. The sample dimensions are 5 inch x 1
inch. The sample is secured at one end over a row of stenter pins on
the carriage and then led round the radiused edge of the flex plate
and the free end is secured over the stenter pins on the head H.A
load of 4 lbs. is added to the spigot S and a 2 lbs. is added to the
bell crank lever so that the specimen will be under tension of 4 lbs.
When the machine is put on reciprocation of carriage causes the
fabric to be repeatedly pulled back and fourth round the edge of
the flex plate and eventually fabric breaks and automatically stops
the machine. The number of cycles are recorded from the counter.
Flex result expressed as

P=
Flex test is related to behavior of fabric during motion and
coherence of fabric structure and ruggedness of individual
fibres.

Local stresses become very high during flexing and individual

fibre is broken.
THE B.F.T. ABRASION TESTING MACHINE:

 Ball toughness:
 Ball Toughness:

 In this test a cover plate with a hardened steel strip is clipped on to the top of the
carriage. The strip is mounted over this steel plate and secured by stenter pins on
either side of the carriage. The abradant is 3/16 inch ball bearing in a special holder
which is attached to the head H. A load of 1 ½ lbs. is added to the spigot.

 The sample dimensions are 5 inch x 1 inch. The short side represents whether warp
or weft way result is required so that the ball runs across the threads.

 The carriage reciprocates beneath the ball by a motor and in time the ball
penetrates the fabric and contacts the hardened strip. When this happens a very
small current flows and triggers special circuit which stops the machine. The ball
toughness is related to the fabric structure and toughness or brittleness of the
individual fibres.

 The ball toughness given by Ball toughness (B) =

 THE B.F.T. ABRASION TESTING MACHINE:

 Flat Abrasion:
 Flat Abrasion:
 In this case the abradant is stainless steel gauge mounted in a special

holder which is fixed to the upper head by springs. The test specimen is

stretched over a resilient pad of conducting material and clipped to the

carriage. A 2 lb load is added to the spigot S. After certain amount of

rubbing the steel gauge comes into contact with the resilient pad and

current flows which stops the machine.

 Flat resistance F is given by

 Flat resistance (F)=

Interpretation of results
 Two methods are used
 Method -1 The Duty factor D:The ball and flex results ae presented as a
harmonic mean and is termed as duty factor
D=[]
B= Ball Toughness
P= Flex Result
Poor fabric has low duty factor and vice versa.
Example: A fabric when tested gives value B=2.6 and
P=3.5

then duty factor

D= 2 / (1/2.6+1/3.5)=3.00
This fabric has poor abrasion resistance
Good fabric has high duty factor
Example: A fabric when tested gives value
B=24.7 and P=46.4
then duty
D= 2 / (1/24.7+1/42.4)=32.00
This fabric has good abrasion resistance
 The Duty factor D

Sr.No. Fabric Type Satisfactory Outstanding

Wear Wear

1. Light Duty group eg. Dress Fabrics 1-4 4-7

2. Heavy Duty group eg. Men 6-10 10-20

Suitings,slacks
3. Shirting’s 5-8 8-15

4. Overalls 7-12 12-25

Interpretation of results

 Method 2:Figure of merit M :

M=[ ]
B= Ball Toughness
P= Flex Result
F= Flat Abrasion result

e.g. B=100,P=100, F=100 gives M=100 but if B=100 ,P=100 and

F=2 will suddenly drop M o 5.7.Therefore fabric designer has to
find out the reason for low flat abrasion value. For
suitings,trousers and suiting the care should be taken
MARTINDALE FLAT ABRASION TESTER
 It is useful for determining the abrasion resistance of cotton synthetic and

blended materials. The machine is used for both woven and knitted fabrics

 Principle:

 Two simple harmonic motions working at right angles. The instrument can be

used for getting circular or linear motion.

 The following parameters can be varied

 Pressure of abrasion

 The type of abrading material such as cloth to cloth, cloth to emery or any

hard surface.
 The machine consists of a top plate supported by three pillars. On the top

of each pillar is a ball caster. These ball casters allow the plates to slide

easily in the horizontal plane determined by three point support. The

driving arrangement for the plate consists of mechanical device of worm

and worm wheel driving three circular cam discs. On the cams, pins are

provided with bush bearings and the pins engage the slots in the plate. The

two outside pins work in two slots in the same line and the centre pin

works in the slot at right angles

 As the cam disc carrying the pins rotate , they rotate the plate. Hence the result
of these two motions will be two simple harmonic motions at right angles. Four
specimen of diameter 38 mm are cut and fixed in the sample holders. The
sample holders move vertically in the clamp brushes. The sample holder touch
the table surface and it will be flat and move in the same plane in which top
plate slides. Due to this movement the cloth is rubbed against the cloth surface
in harmonic pattern. This type of motion has advantage that the specimen will
be rubbed in all portions i.e., both warp and weft ways which is superior to flex
abrasion.

 End Point:

 Determined by visual examination

 Appearance of holes after known number of cycles

 Loss of weight /thickness of cloth after certain number of cycles

 Influence of Yarn and Fabric Geometry
on Abrasion Resistance

 Geometric Aspects:
1. Area of Contact between fabric and abradant.
2. Local pressure or stress concentrations developing on specific
yarn points or areas. (true area of contact)
3. Threads per unit length.
4. Crown Height
5. Yarn Size
6. Fabric Thickness
Influence of Yarn and Fabric Geometry
on Abrasion Resistance

 Geometric Aspects:
7. Yarn Crimp
8. Float Length
9. Yarn Cohesiveness
10. Compressional Resilience and backing of material.
11. Fabric Tightness
12. Cover Factor
Abrasion Aspects

 Direction of Abrasion
 Magnitude and Direction of tensions developed
during abrasive action.
 Geometric Area of Contact Between Fabric and Abradant:

 The geometric area of contact of individual fibres depends on

the normal load at the point of contact, the principal

curvatures of the fibre ,the contour of its cross section and its

modulus. The apparent bulk modulus is a major factor

influencing contact area under a given load as bulk modulus

of the fabric is affected by the compressibility of its backing

support during use.

 Local Pressures or Stress Concentrations Developing on Specific Yarn
Points/Areas:
 A low apparent bulk modulus or high overall flexibility serves to bring as
many yarn crowns
in the geometrical contact with the abrasive surface as is consistent with
the fabric structure. The more numerous the crowns in contact and the
more area per crown or projecting yarn float, the less will be the local load
at a fibre point. As local load is reduced the true area of contact of each
point is also reduced and the abradant protuberances will descend into the
structure to a lesser degree. As a result there will be
1.Less frictional wear at local point of contact
2.Less local frictional resistance to develop axial components of fibre stress
3.Reduced surface cutting of fibre.
4.Less fibre plucking slippage and tensile fatigue.
 Threads Per Inch:

 With all other factors constant the abrasion resistance of

warp flush fabric is improved by increasing the number of

warp crowns/square inch of fabric, thus reducing the normal

load per warp crown. The same trend is observed in fabrics

varying in weave and yarn diameter.

 Crown Height:

 The intersection of warp and filling yarn will produce crown deviation of

one yarn over the other. The extent to which this causes the crown to be

displaced will depend upon the weave, yarn thickness, yarn crimp,

thread count and the interaction of these parameters between warp and

filling. these crowns will the burnt of abrasive action, the resulting

destruction depends upon the nature and direction of the abradant,

height and number of crowns. The greater the number of crowns the less

will be the stress concentration per crown.

 Yarn Size and Fabric Thickness:

 The higher is the thickness and yarn diameter the higher will be

the abrasion resistance. The abrasion resistance is related to

thickness or diameter of the element of the fabric structure

which is exposed to the rubbing surface. The uniformity of yarn

also affects the abrasion resistance. Non uniform heavy yarns

serve as focal points in fabric degradation due to high pressure

concentrations at their crowns.

 Yarn Crimp Distribution:

 Crimp distribution determines the relative vertical displacement of each set of yarns

above and below the fabric. Usually higher crimp will provide more resistance to

abrasion.

 Float Length:

 The longer the float length the less the restraints on the yarn system. Here yarns are

no longer restricted to alternating from one side of the fabric to the other but bend

sideways and allow for the closer packing characteristics of twill and sateen. The float

length is highest for sateen hence its abrasion resistance is the best followed by Oxford

and then plain weave with poor abrasion resistance.

 Yarn Cohesiveness:

 The compressional characteristics and cohesiveness plays dual roles in

determining the abrasion resistance as the twist is altered. Different

abrasion behaviour may be expected in in fabrics of varying yarn twist

depending upon the normal loads between the rubbing surfaces. Yarn twist

brings different fibres to the surfaces in any float length. The number of

filament fibres at any surface depends upon the float length, the turns per

inch and the fibre and yarn diameters.

 Compressive Compliance:

 The compressive behaviour of the surface structure bears

on its wear performance and it may be expected that a low

compressive modulus and high rate of recovery will

enhance abrasion resistance reducing the normal pressures

at local protuberances.
 Fabric Cover and Fabric Tightness:

 The sateen weave fabric shows highest abrasion resistance while plain

shows least. The cover factor is the primary factor in determining the

geometric area of contact of the fabric with abradant while tightness

factor reflects the extent of mobility afforded to the protruding yarns

by the fabric geometry. The fabric with high cover factor can pack

more yarns /unit area without increasing fabric tightness avoiding the

reduction in abrasion resistance through loss of mobility. In general

the high cover factor increases the abrasion resistance but tightness

decreases the abrasion resistance.

 2. Abrasion Aspects:

 Direction of Abrasion:

 The abrasion performance of textile fabrics changes with the change in direction
of rubbing. In experiments where fabrics have been rubbed in warp and filling
direction a ration of 2:1 has been observed in the number of strokes required to
form a hole

 Generally the yarns which project on the rubbing surface of the fabric will
suffer greatest damage when abrasion takes place in a direction perpendicular
to their float length. Here abrasion and tensile stresses occur in one direction. It
becomes desirable to increase the perpendicular set of yarns in terms of
frequency and diameter and bring them to surface to absorb the wear. Under
these conditions, the cross yarns will absorb maximum damage during a period
of rubbing and maximum resistance will be achieved.
 Magnitude and Direction of Tensions Developed During Abrasive

Action:

 Maximum damage in wear of a fabric will occur when the

direction of rubbing is perpendicular to the exposed floats. It is

therefore desirable to orient the fabric in the design of clothing so

that exposed floats are parallel to the predominant direction of

rubbing.