WELDING

• Is a process of joining or
uniting metals. Either the
pieces of metal are heated
until they are molten and fuse
together, or they are heated to
a temperature below their
melting point and bonded by
a molten filler metal.

 Another method is to heat them until they are

soft enough to hammer or press together.
 Merits when compared with
General merits revetting

• Material saving • Simplified structure

• Reduced working period • High joint efficiency
of time • Excellent oil, air, and water
• Improved performance tightness
and life of structure • Material saving
• Reduced working period of
time
• Unrestricted wall thickness
• Lowered cost
• Less noisy
 Merits when compared
with casting
• Wooden model nor
mould,unnecessary.
• Large strength
• Remarkably reduced weight
• Increased yield
• Joint dissimilar metals,
possible
• Easier repair
• Production of complex
shape can be made.
Merits when compared with
forging
• Lower equipment cost
• Lighter weight
• Reduced working period of
time
• Increased yield
• Unrestricted wall thickness
• Production of complex shape
can be made.
Welding Disadvantages

1. Quality of a weld differs from a base

metal.
2. Distortion and residual stresses are
brought in a weld.
3. A weld is sensitive to stress
concentration.
4. Qualitative evaluation of a weld is
difficult within non-destructive
inspections.
5. Properties of a weld vary according to the
skill and consciousness of the welders.
 Weldability

Joint Performance

•Soundness •Performance
•High and low •Mechanical, physical
temperature cracking of and chemical properties
base metal of the welded joint.
•Outlook and poor shape •Distortion and residual
of weld metal stresses
 Classification of welding by energy
• Electrical Energy
– Arc welding
– Elctro-Slag welding
– High frequency welding, Resistance welding
– Electron beam welding
– Plasma welding
• Chemical Energy ….. Oxy-fuel welding, Thermit welding
• Mechanical Energy …. Friction welding
• Ultrasonic Energy …. Ultrasonic welding
• Light Energy ….. Laser welding
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding & Cutting

• The elements of Oxygen-fuel gas welding and

cutting:
– General Requirements
– Cylinders
– Service Pipe Systems
– Pipe System Protection
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
• General Requirements
– Focuses on using Acetylene Safely
• Flammable
• Unstable
• Cannot be adjusted above 15 psi
– Safe Work Practices • The pressure adjusting screw:
– Turning clockwise allows the gas
• Blow out cylinder valve allows to flow.
– Turning counterclockwise reduces
• Turn on cylinder valve first and then
or stop the gas flow.

adjust the regulator pressure screw.

• Never stand in front or behind a
regulator when opening the cylinder valve

• Open cylinder valve slowly

 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
• General Requirements Cont.:
– Safe Work Practices
• Purge oxygen and acetylene passages
• Light the acetylene
• Never use oil or grease
• Do not use oxygen as a substitute for air
• Keep your work area clean
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
• Cylinders
– Cylinder approval and marking
• marked for the purpose of identifying the gas content, with
either the chemical or trade name of the gas

– Storage of cylinders
• Storage area must be well ventilated
• Cylinders must be at least 20 feet from combustibles
• Valves must be closed
• Valve protection must be in place
• Inside storage must be limited to 2,000 cubic feet.
• Cylinders must be stored in upright position
• Oxygen must be at least 20 feet from fuel gas or 5
feet with a 1/2 hour fire barrier
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
• Cylinders Cont.:
– Operating Procedures
• Operation must emphasize the absence of oily
or greasy substances. Follow these rules of
operation:
– Cylinders, cylinder valves, couplings, regulators,
hose, and apparatus shall be kept free from oily or
greasy substances.
– Oxygen cylinders or apparatus shall not be
handled with oily hands or gloves.
– A jet of oxygen must never be permitted to strike
an oily surface, greasy clothes, or enter a fuel oil
or other storage tank.
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
• Service Pipe Systems
– There are special requirements for service pipe
systems when using oxygen or acetylene.
• Oxygen
• Acetylene or Acetylene Compounds
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting

• Pipe System Protection

– The entire service pipe system must be protected
against build-up of excessive pressure and leaks.
This protection is accomplished with:
• Protective equipment
• Regulators
• Proper hose and hose connections.
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
• Pipe System Protection Cont.:
– Protective equipment is divided into the two
categories listed here:
• Pressure Relief Devices
– The pressure relief device should discharge upwards to a safe
location.
– Pressure relief valves are required in fuel-gas piping systems
to prevent excessive pressure build up within the system.
 Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
• Pipe System Protection Cont.:
– Approved protective equipment shall be
installed in fuel-gas piping to prevent:
• Backflow of oxygen into the fuel-gas supply
system
• Passage of a flash back into the fuel-gas supply
system
• Excessive back pressure of oxygen in the fuel-
gas supply system.
 Cutting
• Definition:
– A stream of oxygen is directed against a piece of heated
metal, causing the metal to oxidize or burn away.
• Making a Cut
– Mark a line as a guide.
– Turn on acetylene as for welding and light.
– Turn on oxygen adjusting flame to neutral.
– Make sure the oxygen lever flame remains neutral.
– Place metal on the cutting table so metal will fall clear.
– Flame Types:
 Brazing
:Definition •
– A process which a filler metal is placed at or between the
faying surfaces, the temperature is raised high enough to
melt the filler metal but not the base metal.
• The molten metal fills the spaces by capillary attraction.
• Torch Brazing
– Oxy-fuel torch with a carburizing flame
– First heat the joint then add the filler metal
 OFW Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
- the equipment is low in cost
- portable
- can be used for other operations like bending, cutting,
straightening, preheating, post heating surfacing, brazing
- many different metals can be welded including ferrous
and nonferrous

Disadvantages
- not suitable for welding thick sections since there are
other more economical methods available
 (Arc Current x Arc Voltage x 60)
Arc Energy = ------------------------------------------------
(Arc Travel-Speed x 1000)

where,
arc energy is in kJ/mm (kJ/inch)
Current is in amperes
Voltage is in volts
travel speed is in mm/minute
(inches/minute).
(Note that 1 kJ/mm = 25
kJ/inch)
Welding Machine Output Characteristics
 Arc Welding and Cutting
• Definition:
– A fusion process wherein the coalescence of the
metals is achieved from the heat of an electric arc
formed between an electrode and the work.
• Application
• Installation
• Operation & Maintenance
 Arc Welding & Cutting
• Application
– Applies to a large and varied group of processes
that use an electric arc as the source of heat to melt
and join metals.
• Installation
– Arc welding requires proper installation of
equipment.
– A critical part of installation is ensuring that
proper grounding is completed.
 Arc Welding & Cutting
• Operation & Maintenance
– All connections to the machine shall be checked to
make certain that they are properly made.
– The work lead shall be firmly attached to the work.
– Magnetic work clamps shall be free from adherent
metal particles of spatter on contact surfaces.
– Coiled welding cable shall be spread out before use to
avoid serious overheating and damage
to insulation.
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)/Stick Welding
• Definition:
– Consumable electrode
coated with chemicals
that provide flux and
shielding
– The filler metal (here
the consumable
electrode) is usually
very close in
composition to the
metal being welded.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF COATING

 Weld metals and slag of proper viscosity

for the positions in which the electrode is
intended to be use.

 A slag of the proper density and melting

point so that the slag is not trapped in the
freezing weld metal.

 A slag which is easy to remove.

1/2
 Welds of the desired surface appearance,
including bead shapes or contours.

 Arc characteristics, which lead to low

spatter.

 Coating must be capable of being

extruded readily in modern high-speed
presses.

 It must adhere tenaciously to the rod for

 shipping and handling.

2/2
FUNCTIONS OF COATING MATERIALS

 Providing a suitable gaseous atmosphere for the arc

and molten weld puddle.
 Acting as a scavenger flux to clean the base metal
and a refiner for the molten metal (deoxidation).
 Forming a slag which protects the weld metal
during solodification.
 Assisting in improving the electrical stability of the
arc.
 Providing a means of adding alloying elements to
change the mechanical properties of the weld
metal.
TYPE OF ELECTRODE COVERING
1. Ilmenite Type
 About 1/3 of weight of coating flux of this type
consists of ilmenite ores.
 The electrode of this type provides strong and
spray arc, resulting in deep penetration and fluid
slag, easier welding for all position
 Also provides good appearance of beads, good X-
ray performance and excellent crack resistance
welds next to low hydrogen type.
 Workability, weldability and efficiency are well
balanced in this type of electrode.
2. Rutile Type
 The coating flux contain 30 to 40% of titanium
oxide.
 Provides stable arc and small spatters.
 Provides excellent workability such as shallow
weld penetration and good appearance of beads. It
is suited to welding thin sheets.
 Ductility of deposited metal is poor and hence, it is
not suited to welding of important structures and
thick plates.
3. Lime Titania Type
 The coating flux mainly consists of titanium
oxide (rutile) and lime.
 Deposited metal has high toughness.
 Undercut hardly occurs during vertical and
overhead
 welding with this type of electrode. Flat bead
can be obtained.

4. Cellulose Type
 The coating flux contains 20 to 30% of organic
materials.
 This type produces poor appearance of bead
and many spatter.
 Good penetration could be achieved by the
aids of hydrogen content.
5. Basic Type
 The main raw materials employed in this coating
flux is lime, and thus its basicity is high.
 Large droplets and deoxidized low-hydrogen metal
is deposited.
 Drying basic electrode to low moisture levels gives
low weld hydrogen content and hence minimum risk
of hydrogen cracking.
 It has superior mechanical properties.
6. Iron Powder Electrodes
 Addition of sufficient iron powder provides high
electrical condactivity of covering and hence higher
welding currents can be used without danger of
overheating, and also the deposition rate will be
increased.
 The arc is less forceful because of the reduced
current density, this considerably reduces the loss of
metal by spatter.
 Iron powder is readily ionised and reduces the
resistance of the are thereby increasing the inherent
efficiency of deposition.
 SMAW Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
- the equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and
portable
- auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not required
- the process is less sensitive to wind and draft than gas
shielded welding processes
- good qualify welds can be obtained
- it can be used in areas of limited access
- the process is suitable for most of the commonly used
metals and alloys
- it can be used to weld in all positions

SMAW/1
Disadvantages
- operator duty cycle and overall deposition rates for
covered electrodes are usually less than welding
processes utilizing a continuous electrode
- some electrodes have inherently very high hydrogen
levels. Low hydrogen (basic type) electrodes required
careful control of electrode exposure to maintain low
diffusible hydrogen levels
- high degree of welder skill required
- covered electrodes have a relatively high particulate fume
generation rate.

SMAW/2
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GAMW)
• Definition:
– The heat source is formed by creating an electric arc
between the work piece and a wire, which is fed
continuously into the weld pool.
• Benefits:
– Long welds can be made without
starts and stops
– Minimal skill required
– Minimal cleaning of
surface before weld
– Allows welding in all
positions
 Arc length shortened by fall in
O.C.V. burn-off rate

Working point

Voltage
Voltage rises because arc
length has increased
Output characteristics slope = 2V/100A
Current responds inversely
to change in voltage
Initial change

I2 I1

Burn-off rate alters

Correction to with current
Burn-off rate

return to original
setting

I2 I1 Current
 Relationship between the modes of metal transfer in GMAW

Short Circuit Globular Spray

Moderate Low High Current

Density

CO2 or CO2 mixing All gases Ar, or Ar mixing Shielding

gases gases Gases

Low H.I, therefore it Moderate H.I High H.I Heat Input

can be used in Deep Penetration Produced
welding of thin plates High deposition rate
All Positions F, H F, H, V Welding
Position
Flux Cored Arc Welding
 GMAW Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
- applicable to virtually all commercially important metals
such as carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum and copper
- high deposition rates can be achieved
- low hydrogen deposit
- high deposition efficiency. For example, 98% of each spool
of wire becomes deposited weld metal whereas the figure is
only 60-70% for SMAW.
- absence of slag covering reduces cleaning time. However,
small slag islands may still be present depending on the
shielding gas used.
- relatively low fume generation rate. However, ozone can be
a potential problem on stainless and aluminum materials.
 GMAW Advantages and Disadvantages

Disadvantages
- out of position welding requires special
techniques or equipment, for example, short-
circuiting arc or pulsed current
- much more sensitive to operating parameters
than other processes
- inert gases can be expensive
- air drafts can disperse the shielding gas
- equipment is more complex, expensive and
less portable than that used for the SMAW
process
SAW Process
 SAW Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
- high deposition rates and productivity can be achieved
- low hydrogen deposit
- sound welds are easily obtainable
- little fume is generated and arc radiation and spatter are generally
not a problem.

Disadvantages
- limited to the flat and horizontal positions
- equipment is relatively expensive and requires special devices for
seam tracking
- set-up time can be significant
- access to certain joints is limited due to size and inflexibility of
equipment.
GTAW Process
 GTAW Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
- high quality welds
- very little postweld cleaning is required
- welding can be performed in all positions
- spatter free
- can be used with or without filler metal
- flexible - can be used to weld most metals

Disadvantages
- high degree of welder skill required
- relatively low deposition rates
- it is not as economical as other processes when
welding materials thicker than 3/8" (10mm)
 PAW Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
- high travel speeds
- lower current for same weld (less shrinkage, reduced
distortion)
- narrower beads for a given penetration (less distortion)
- torch standoff distance is more generous; easier to add filler
metal
- electrode cannot touch the filler or puddle, which eliminates
tungsten contamination of the weld
- variations in standoff distance have little effect on the bead
width; this makes out of position welding easier
- can be used for joining most metals

Disadvantages
- higher initial cost of equipment
- the PAW has little tolerance for joint misalignment (narrow
beads)
- manual PAW torch requires more skill to use
- maintenance is more complex,
- higher skill level is required to use the process
ESW Process
 ESW Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
- high metal deposition rates
- can weld very thick cross sections in one pass
- preheat is generally not required
- high quality weld deposit
- minimal amount of distortion
- minimal joint preparation and fit-up requirements
- minimal joint finishing at the completion of welding
- high filler metal utilization

Disadvantages
- can only be used when the joint axis is vertical
- can only be used for welding carbon and low alloy steels and
some stainless steels
- once welding has started it must be carried on to completion
otherwise a defective area will result
- cannot be used on materials less than 1/2" thick
- complex shapes may be difficult or impossible to weld
 Safe Work Practices
• Electric & Gas Welding
– Safety Check:
• Ensure electrical cord, electrode holder and cables are
free from defects
– No cable splices within 10 feet of electrode holder.
• Ensure welding unit is properly grounded. This helps
to avoid over heating.
• All defective equipment shall be repaired or replaced
before using.
 Safe
• Electric & Gas WorkCont.:
Welding Practices
– Safety Check:
• Remove all jewelry – rings, watches, bracelets, etc…
• Ensure PPE e.g.. welding hood, gloves, rubber boots or
safety shoes, apron are available and in good condition.
• Ensure fire extinguisher is charged and available.
• Ensure adequate ventilation and lighting is in place.
• Set Voltage Regulator to Manufacture’s specifications.
• Avoid electrical shock DON’T wrap cables around any
body part.
• Ensure fittings are tight.
 Safe Work Practices
• Electric & Gas Welding Cont.:
– Safety Check:
• Inspect hoses for cuts and frayed areas.
• Set gauges to desired PSI.
• Ensure that sufficient PPE is made
available.
• Locate welding screens to protect
employee’s – DON’T block your exit.
• Ensure that adequate ventilation and lighting
are in place.
 Fire Protection & Prevention
• Fire hazards must be removed, or
– Guards installed, or
– Welding/cutting must NOT take place
• Hot work permit should be used outside
designated areas to ensure that all fire
hazards are controlled
• Use of fire watch
– 1/2 hour after operation ceases
 Fire Protection & Prevention Cont.:
• Welding areas should meet the following
requirements:
– Floors swept & cleared of combustibles 35 ft.
radius of work area.
– Flammable and combustible liquids kept 35
ft. radius of work area.
– At least one fire extinguisher – on site
– Protective dividers to contain sparks and
slag
• Welding curtains
• Non-combustible walls
• Fire resistant tarps & blankets
 Proper Ventilation for Welding
• Ventilation
– Proper ventilation can be obtained either naturally or mechanically.
• Natural Ventilation is considered sufficient for welding and
brazing operations if the present work area meets these
requirements:
– Space of more than 10,000 square feet is provided per
welder
– A ceiling height of more than 16 feet.
• Mechanical ventilation options generally fall into two basic
categories.
– Low vacuum system which takes large volumes of air at
low velocities.
– High vacuum system that are captured and extracted fumes
as near to the work as possible.
 Proper Ventilation for Welding

• Ensure protection from fumes

and gases by one or a
combination of the following:
– Good general ventilation.
– Use of a booth.
– Local exhaust ventilation
on the hand piece.
– Air supply to the helmet.
 Welding Operators Protection
• Welding involves specialized personal
protection that must be worn every time you
perform welding operations. The following is a
list of basic PPE:
– Fire-resistant gloves
– Aprons
– Safety shoes
– Helmet
– Ultraviolet radiation filter plate (arc welding)
– Goggles with filter lenses