Lecture Week 11 - Evolution 2

Evolution: Concepts, Mechanisms and
Evidence
Evolution1: Learning Outcomes
After this class, you will be able to:
1. Explain Evolution both the process and the theory.
2. Realize the following which remedy common misconceptions regarding
evolution:
- It is populations that evolve, not single organisms; organisms
develop.
- Humans did not descend from Chimpanzees, rather, according to the
Theory of Evolution, they have descended from common ancestors.
- Theory of Evolution in its present form was not fully formulated by
Darwin. Rather, there were ideas before him, and his preliminary ideas,
although brilliant, were far developed later by many scientists following many
scientific discoveries.
Evolution1: Learning Outcomes
- The theory does not try to explain the origin of life. The theory of
evolution explains how populations change over time and how life
diversifies—the origin of species
- Evolution is not intentional. A changed environment results in some
individuals in the population, those with particular phenotypes,
benefiting and, therefore, producing proportionately more offspring
than other phenotypes.
- The variation that natural selection works on is already in a
population and does not arise in response to an environmental
change.
Evolution 1: Learning Outcomes
3. State the process of evolution in the language of population genetics as
a change over time of the allele frequencies in a population.
4. Describe and distinguish among the following mechanisms of evolution:
- Genetic Drift ( Founder’s Effect, Bottleneck Effect)
- Genetic Flow
- Non-random mating
- Mutation
- Natural selection
5. Describe the following types of evidence for evolution:
- Fossil Record
- Anatomy and Embryology (Homologous structures; Analogous
structures; Vestigial structures)
- Biochemical Evidence
- Geographical Distribution
6. Describe the definition of species and how species are identified as
different.
7. Explain allopatric and sympatric speciation.
8. Describe adaptive radiation.
Evolution 2: Historical Background
• Early Theory of Evolution
- Lamarck, a French biologist, proposed ( early 19th century):
That body structures could change according
to the actions of the organism. Acquired
characteristics could be passed on to any offspring.
- He was incorrect, but paved the way for Darwin.

• Natural Selection:
- Darwin and Wallace (19th century) ,
following a couple of separate
journeys to S.America, Australia and
South Africa proposed an explanation
of the variation among animal and
plan species that descend from a
single ancestor.
- Darwin called this mechanism “ Natural Selection.
• Natural Selection:
-Darwin and Wallace wrote scientific
papers on natural selection that were
presented together before the
Linnean Society in 1858.
- The following year Darwin’s book, On the Origin of Species, was

published, which outlined in considerable detail his arguments for
evolution by natural selection.
• Darwin’s Observation:
• Finches and tortoises had different beaks
and shells/necks depending on diet.
• However, all the finches and all the
tortoises have many similar physical
characteristics suggesting a common ancestor for each.
• The differences in the finches and tortoises was due to adaptation to
the food source.
• Darwin’s explanation-Natural selection:
-Survival of the fittest: those individuals better suited
to survive
• 4 principles of Natural Selection:
• Variation: there should be variation present already
among the population
• Heritability: These variation should be heritable
• Overproduction: More off springs than those that could survive are produced.
• Reproductive advantage: The fittest ones will be able to reproduce and so
pass their characteristics to next generations.
• Darwin’s explanation-Natural selection:
• Darwin’s Natural Selection Mechanism was put forward before
accumulation of knowledge on genetics.
• First scientific work on inheritance by Mendel was published in 1866

after the publication of Origin of Species by Darwin.
Evolution 2: The Modern Synthesis
• Developments in Genetics over the second half of the nineteenth and
first half of the twentieth century lead to a deeper understanding of
Evolution.
• The Modern Synthesis ( coined in 1940’s) :
-Describes how evolutionary processes, such as natural selection, can
affect a population’s genetic makeup, and, in turn, how this can result in
the gradual evolution of populations and species.
-The theory also connects this gradual change of a population over time,
called microevolution, with the processes that gave rise to new species
and higher taxonomic groups with widely divergent characters, called
macroevolution.
Evolution 2: Population Genetics
• Genes and Alleles:

- Alleles are various versions of the gene that determines a given
characteristic of the organism.
• Example: Blood group in humans.
- The gene that determine the blood group can come in one of three
alleles: A, B or O.
• Population Genetics: Field of biology that studies what happens to all
alleles in a population.
• Population-genetic definition of the evolution process:

• In population genetic terms, evolution is defined as a change in the
frequency of an allele in a population.
• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
States that a population’s allele and genotype frequencies are inherently
stable. Therefore:
-Unless some kind of evolutionary force is acting on the population, the
population would carry the same alleles in the same proportions
generation after generation.
• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium never exists in a population since

evolutionary processes are always taking place.
• So, there are always mechanism/processes that lead to change in the
allele frequency in populations.
• These are the Mechanisms of Evolution.
Evolution 2: Mechanisms of Evolution
1. Genetic Drift – change in frequency of allele variations in a population.

More effective in smaller populations.
- Chance.
-Founder’s effect : Reduction in alleles resulting from a small group settling
in a separate location away from the rest of the population.
https://www.biologysimulations.com/genetic-drift-founder-effect
-Bottleneck effect: Reduction in alleles resulting from a chance event that
drastically decreases population size.
https://www.biologysimulations.com/genetic-drift-bottleneck-event
Genetic drift by chance
Genetic drift by chance:
On an island, genetic drift happens more quickly.
Because, random changes in allele frequencies are less likely to have a

significant impact on the entire population.
10 rabbits vs 10 000 rabbits

Genetic drift by bottleneck effect
• Genetic drift
• Gene flow (migration)
• Mutation
• Natural selection
• « Non-random mating»
2. Genetic flow – migrating individuals transport genes.
- flow of alleles in and out of a population
- Ex1: Many plants, send their seeds far and wide, by wind or in the
guts of animals.
- Ex2: the brown allele is introduced into the green population.
3. Mutation – change in genetic material.

- Effect enhanced when combined with natural selection (Covid -19
virus).
4. Natural Selection: acts on variation – “Survival of the fittest”
• Types of Natural selection
-Stabilizing selection – favors average individuals.
-Directional selection – favors one extreme or the other, example very
large or very small.
-Disruptive selection – favors individuals of both extremes.
-Sexual selection – changes in frequencies of traits based on
ability to attract mates.
4. Natural Selection: acts on variation – “Survival of the fittest”
-Directional selection –Examples:
-Peppered moths
-Antibiotic resistance
-Chloroquine resistance of Plasmodium vivax (malaria)
-Mosquito resistance to DDT
-Size of horses increased over time.
-Directional selection
–Examples: increase in
horse size
Disruptive selection – Example.
Example – British land snail
has a wide range of habitat.
Low vegetation areas favor
light banded shells –
birds eat dark banded.
Forests favor dark banded shells
– birds eat light banded
4. Natural Selection:
-Stabilizing selection Example
– human birth weight
-Sexual selection – Example:
Elephant seals fight over territories.
Stronger ones manage to mate.
• Genetic drift
• Gene flow (migration)
• Mutation
• Natural selection
• « Non-random mating»
«5». Non-random mating: occurs when individuals prefer mates with

particular superior physical characteristics or by the preference of
individuals to mate with individuals similar to themselves.
-Non-random mating can also occur when mates are chosen based on
physical accessibility; that is, the availability of some mates over others.
- Non-random mating will also disrupt the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
but only by shifting genotype frequencies, not allele frequencies.
Evolution 2: Types of Evidence for
Evolution
• There are different Lines of Evidence for evolution.
• These together provide a powerful support of the theory.
• The evidence come from four major areas:
1. Fossil record (strongest evidence)
2. Anatomy and Embryology
3. Biogeography
4. Molecular Biology
Evolution
1. Fossils:
- Provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are
not the same as those found today - Evolution in action
- Show a progression of evolution, i.e. shows how a specific organism
evolved from some form to another over periods that can go up to
millions of years.
- Some fossils allow us to trace current organisms to their ancestors
millions of years ago.
Evolution
1. Fossils:
- Radioactive isotope dating allows us to determine the age of fossils
with high accuracy.
- Fossil record studied along with geological evidence about change of
environment demonstrate adaptation of organisms to environment.
- Fossils of some species ( horses in North America, for example) have
been found that form a chain dating back to 55 millions years back!
- Change in anatomy and so function of organs is evident!
Evolution
1. Fossils: Horses in North America ( artist adaptation)
Evolution
2. Anatomy and Embryology:
a. Homologous Structures : Structures in different organisms that
share the same basic structure
• This similarity suggests : descent from a common ancestor+
adaptation by evolutionary mechanisms.
Evolution
• Example: bones in the appendages of a human, dog, bird, and whale
all share the same overall construction
Evolution
b. Analogous Structures : Convergence of form ( form becoming
similar) in organisms that share similar environments.
-This similarity suggests : NOT descend from a common ancestor,
rather the action of evolutionary mechanisms so that organisms adapt
to environment.
Evolution
Homologous structures share a similar embryonic origin;
Analogous organs have a similar function.
For example, 1) the bones in the front flipper of a whale are
homologous to the bones in the human arm. These structures are not
analogous.
2) The wings of a butterfly and the wings of a bird are analogous but
not homologous
Evolution
• Example: The arctic fox and ptarmigan (a bird), living in the arctic
region have temporary white coverings during winter
Evolution
c. Vestigial Structures : Structures that exist in organisms that have no
apparent function at all.
- Seem to be residual parts from a past ancestor
Examples:
-some snakes have pelvic bones despite having no legs because they
descended from reptiles that did have legs.
- Wings on flightless birds.
- Appendix in humans.
Evolution
- primary function: transferring weight
from the axial skeleton to the lower
appendicular skeleton when standing
and walking
Evolution
Wisdom teeth in humans:
• Lack of forks and knives
• No cooking of meat.
• Broader jaw was needed.
• Wisdom teeth increases chewing
power.
• Inside a wider jaw, wisdom teeth
were able to grow in with no
difficulties.
Evolution
• Embryological development:
-Structures that are absent in some groups often appear in their
embryonic forms and disappear by the time the adult or juvenile form is
reached.
• Examples:
-all vertebrate embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits at some point
in their early development that disappear in terrestrial organisms as they
develop further.
Evolution
3. Molecular Biology:
- DNA is the universal genetic material
- The genetic code is nearly universal
- The near universality of the machinery of DNA replication and
expression.
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/tiny-genetic-differences-
between-humans-and-other-primates-pervade-the-genome/
Evolution
• Same Building Blocks for All Living Things:
Most living things use the same instructions for making proteins, like they're
following a common recipe.
• DNA's Simple Ingredients:

In almost every living thing, the DNA recipe book contains only four basic
ingredients: A, T, G, and C.
Evolution
4. Biogeography:
• Biogeography is the study of plants and animals throughout the
world.
• Related forms evolved in one locale and then spread out to other
areas if accessible. Geography can limit that spreading.
• Species diversify as they spread.
• Regions suitable to a species may not have any of that species if there
was no way for it to get there.
Evolution
• Biogeographic
Evidence-Example
The Proteacea family
of plants evolved
before the
supercontinent
Gondwana (600 Mya)
broke up.
Today, members
of this plant family
are found
throughout the
southern hemisphere
(shown in red).
Evolution
• Biogeographic Evidence-Example
Australia has an abundance of endemic
species—species found nowhere else—
which is typical of islands whose isolation
by expanses of water prevents migration of
species to other regions.
Evolution 2: Speciation
• Species: is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals.
- According to this definition, one species is distinguished from another
by the possibility of mating between individuals from each species to
produce fertile offspring.
• Speciation: the formation of two species from one original species.
- The two species must evolve in such a way that it becomes impossible
for individuals from the two new populations to interbreed.
• Mechanisms for Speciation:
• Allopatric speciation, meaning speciation in “other homelands” .

- involves a geographic separation of populations from a parent species
and subsequent evolution.
• Sympatric speciation, meaning speciation in the “same homeland”.
- involves speciation occurring within a parent species while remaining
in one location.
• Allopatric speciation:
-When populations become geographically discontinuous, free-flow of
alleles is prevented.
-When that separation lasts for a period of time, the two populations
evolve along different trajectories.
- Eventually, the allele frequencies of numerous genes gradually
become more and more different as new alleles independently arise
by mutation in each population
• Allopatric speciation-continued:
-Given enough time, the genetic and phenotypic divergence between
populations will likely affect characters that influence reproduction
-Eventually, Reproductive Isolation (inability to interbreed) of the two
populations will develop.
- Prezygotic reproductive isolation: development of traits that prevent the
individuals to find each other, such as the timing of mating, sensitivity to
pheromones, or choice of mating sites.
- Postzygotic reproductive isolation: development of genetic
incompatibilities that prevent proper development of the offspring, or if the
offspring live, they may be unable to produce viable gametes .
• Allopatric speciation-continued:
• Adaptive radiation: when a population of one species disperses
throughout an area, and each finds a distinct niche or isolated habitat.
Over time, the varied demands of their new lifestyles lead to multiple
speciation events originating from a single species.
• Allopatric speciation Examples:
Northern and Southern Spotted Owls
• Allopatric speciation-
adaptive radiation Example:
The Hawaiian honeycreeper
Bird
• Sympatric speciation: Speciation without geographic separation
• Polyploidy: is a condition in which a cell, or organism, has an extra
set, or sets, of chromosomes.
A. Autopolyploidy: individual will have two or more complete sets of
chromosomes from its own species
• Sympatric speciation-continued
- The gametes now have more chromosomes than they should have.
- These new gametes will be incompatible with the normal gametes
produced by this species.
- They could either self-pollinate ( if plants) or reproduce with other
autopolyploid gametes having the same diploid number.
- In this way, sympatric speciation can occur.
• Sympatric speciation: Speciation without geographic separation
B. Allopolyploidy: Occurs when individuals of two different species
reproduce to form a viable offspring called an allopolyploid.
- Takes at least two generations
to happen.
- Allpolpolyploidy happens
mostly in plants.
• Sympatric speciation: Other mechanisms
A. Competition for food  morphological changes—> reproductive
isolation  sympatric speciation.
• Example: Cichlid fish from Lake Apoyeque, Nicaragua.
• Sympatric speciation: Other mechanisms
B. Change of host  morphological changes—> reproductive isolation 
sympatric speciation.
• Example: Apple maggot fly ( Rhagoletis pomonella):
- A single species that was host-specific used to feed and mate on hawthorn
trees.
- When apple trees were introduced into North America, either through mutation
or a behavioral mistake, flies jumped hosts and met and mated in apple trees.
- The offspring continued living on apple trees effectively dividing the original
population into two new populations separated by host species, not by
geography.
Evolution
2: History….
Evolution 2: History….
A good summary of Speciation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fAajKkjjLCQ&ab_channel=Professo
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Evolution: Concepts, Mechanisms and

- He was incorrect, but paved the way for Darwin.

- The following year Darwin’s book, On the Origin of Species, was

• First scientific work on inheritance by Mendel was published in 1866

• Genes and Alleles:

• Population-genetic definition of the evolution process:

• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium never exists in a population since

1. Genetic Drift – change in frequency of allele variations in a population.

On an island, genetic drift happens more quickly.

Because, random changes in allele frequencies are less likely to have a

10 rabbits vs 10 000 rabbits

3. Mutation – change in genetic material.

«5». Non-random mating: occurs when individuals prefer mates with

• DNA's Simple Ingredients:

• Allopatric speciation, meaning speciation in “other homelands” .

A good summary of Speciation:

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