Morr11e 05-PPT Ada Rev

Understanding Psychology
Eleventh Edition
Chapter 5
Learning
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives (1 of 6)
•
5.1 Define learning. Describe the elements of classical
conditioning, distinguishing among unconditioned stimulus,
unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response.
•
5.2 Describe the process of establishing a classically
conditioned response, including the effect of intermittent
pairing.
•
5.3 Provide examples of classical conditioning in humans,
including desensitization therapy.
•
5.4 Explain the statement that “classical conditioning is
selective” and illustrate with examples of conditioned taste
aversions.
•
5.5 Explain how operant conditioning differs from classical
conditioning.
•
5.6 Describe operant behaviors, the law of effect (the
principle of reinforcement), and the role of reinforcers and
punishers.
•
5.7 Explain the role of shaping in establishing an operantly
conditioned response.
•
5.8 Discuss the types of reinforcers and possible
unintentional effects of reinforcement.
•
5.9 Explain the circumstances under which punishment can
be effective and the drawbacks to using punishment.
•
5.10 Explain what is meant by learned helplessness.
•
5.11 Describe how biofeedback and neurofeedback can
be used to change behavior.
•
5.12 Describe the importance of contingencies in both
operant and classical conditioning. Differentiate between
the four schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning
and their effect on learned behavior.
•
5.13 Describe the processes of extinction and spontaneous
recovery.
•
5.14 Describe the processes of generalization and
discrimination in classical and operant conditioning.
•
5.15 Explain what is meant by higher order conditioning and
differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers.
•
5.16 Define cognitive learning and how it can be inferred
from evidence of latent learning and cognitive maps.
•
5.17 Explain what is meant by insight and its relation to
learning sets.
•
5.18 Explain the process of observational (vicarious)
learning and the conditions under which it is most likely to
be reflected in behavior.
•
5.19 Give examples of cognitive learning in nonhumans.
Enduring Issues (1 of 4)
• Stability–Change
– To what extent do organisms change over the course
of their lives?
• Diversity–Universality
– Events that shape learning vary among individuals
• Nature–Nurture
– Learning is influenced by an organism’s inborn
characteristics
• Mind–Body
– Learning can affect our physical health by influencing
how our body responds to disease
Learning (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.1 Define learning. Describe the elements of classical conditioning,
distinguishing among unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned
stimulus and conditioned response.
• Process by which experience or practice results in

a relatively permanent change in behavior or
potential behavior
Learning (2 of 2)
• Three types of learning discussed in this chapter

– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
– Cognitive learning
Classical Conditioning (CC)
• Type of learning in which response naturally

elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by
different, formerly neutral stimulus
• Type of learning discovered by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov who was studying
digestion in dogs
Elements of Classical Conditioning (1 of 2)
• Unconditioned stimulus (US)

– Stimulus that invariably causes organism to respond in
specific way
• Unconditioned response (UR)
– Response that takes place in organism whenever
unconditioned stimulus occurs
Elements of Classical Conditioning (2 of 2)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)

– Originally neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned
stimulus and eventually produces the desired response
in organism when presented alone
• Conditioned response (CR)
– After conditioning, the response organism produces
when conditioned stimulus is presented
The Classical Conditioning Process
• Before conditioning
– Bell  No response
– Food (US)  Salivation (UR)
• During conditioning
– Bell (CS) followed by food (US)  Salivation (UR)
• After conditioning
– Bell (CS)  Salivation (CR)
Establishing a Classically Conditioned
Response
Learning Objective 5.2 Describe the process of establishing a classically conditioned
response, including the effect of intermittent pairing.
• Repeated pairings
– Pairings of unconditioned stimulus (US) and cue before
the US becomes conditioned response (CR)
• Intermittent pairing
– Conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus on
only portion of learning trials
Classical Conditioning in Humans
Learning Objective 5.3 Provide examples of classical conditioning in humans, including
desensitization therapy.
• Phobias
– Intense, irrational fears of particular things or situations
– Learned and unlearned through classical conditioning
• Desensitization therapy
– Conditioning technique
– Designed to gradually reduce anxiety about particular
object or situation
Classical Conditioning Is Selective (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.4 Explain the statement that “classical conditioning is selective” and
illustrate with examples of conditioned taste aversions.
• Since people can develop phobias through

classical conditioning, why don’t we acquire
phobias of everything that is paired with harm?
Classical Conditioning Is Selective (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.4 Explain the statement that “classical conditioning is selective” and
illustrate with examples of conditioned taste aversions.
• Seligman explained CC by concept of

preparedness
– Biological readiness to learn certain associations
because of their survival advantages
• Conditioned taste aversion
– Learned association between taste of a certain food
and feeling of nausea and revulsion
Operant (or Instrumental) Conditioning
Learning Objective 5.5 Explain how operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning.
• Behaviors emitted in presence of specific stimuli

• Earns rewards or avoids punishments
Elements of Operant Conditioning
Learning Objective 5.6 Describe operant behaviors, the law of effect (the principle of
reinforcement), and the role of reinforcers and punishers.
• Essential components of operant conditioning

– Emitted behavior or operant behavior
– Consequence
Types of Consequences
• Reinforcers
– Stimuli that follow behavior and increase likelihood that
behavior will be repeated
• Punishers
– Stimuli that follow behavior and decrease likelihood
that behavior will be repeated
Law of Effect
• Also called “principle of reinforcement”

• Thorndike’s theory
• Consistently rewarded behavior will be “stamped
in”
• Learned behavior and behavior that brings about
discomfort will be “stamped out”
Establishing an Operantly Conditioned
Response
Learning Objective 5.7 Explain the role of shaping in establishing an operantly conditioned
response.
• Operantly conditioned response

– Sometimes difficult to establish
– Behavior has to be emitted first
• Skinner box
– Used with animal
– Limits available responses
– Increases likelihood that desired response will occur
Shaping
Learning Objective 5.7 Explain the role of shaping in establishing an operantly conditioned
response.
• Process of reinforcing successive approximations

to desired behavior
A Closer Look at Reinforcement
Learning Objective 5.8 Discuss the types of reinforcers and possible unintentional effects of
reinforcement.
• Types of reinforcers
– Positive reinforcers
– Negative reinforcers
Punishment (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 5.9 Explain the circumstances under which punishment can be effective
and the drawbacks to using punishment.
• Punishment
– Any event whose presence decreases likelihood that
ongoing behavior will recur
• Reinforcement
– Strengthens behavior
• Negative reinforcement
– Strengthens behavior by removing something
unpleasant from environment
Punishment (2 of 3)
• Effective punishment
– Swift
– Sufficient without being cruel
– Consistent
Punishment (3 of 3)
• Punishment drawbacks
– Cannot “unteach” unwanted behaviors
– Can backfire by stirring up negative feelings
– Can teach aggression
Learned Helplessness
Learning Objective 5.10 Explain what is meant by learned helplessness.
• Failure to avoid or escape from unpleasant or

aversive stimulus
• Occurs as result of previous exposure to
unavoidable painful stimuli
Shaping Behavior through Biofeedback
Learning Objective 5.11 Describe how biofeedback and neurofeedback can be used to
change behavior.
• Biofeedback
– Uses monitoring devices to provide precise information
about internal physiological processes
– Teaches people to gain voluntary control over these
functions
• Neurofeedback
– Uses biofeedback technique that monitors brain waves
with use of EEG
– Teaches people to gain voluntary control over their
brain wave activity
Factors Shared by Classical and
Operant Conditioning
• Learning of associations
• Under control of stimuli in the environment
• Conditioned responses will not last forever
• New behaviors can build on previously
established ones
The Importance of Contingencies (1 of 4)
Learning Objective 5.12 Describe the importance of contingencies in both operant and
classical conditioning. Differentiate between the four schedules of reinforcement in operant
conditioning and their effect on learned behavior.
• Contingency
– Relationship in which one event depends on another
• In classical conditioning
– Contingency perceived between CS and US because
of predictive information CS provides
– CS must precede and occur in close proximity with US
for this contingency to occur
• In operant conditioning
– Learner must perceive connection between performing
certain voluntary action and receiving particular reward
or punishment
• Frequency of reinforcement
– Important
– Behaviors not reinforced continuously persist longer
• Operant conditioning
• Other concepts
– Schedule of reinforcement
– Fixed-interval schedule
– Variable-interval schedule
– Fixed-ratio schedule
– Variable-ratio schedule
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.13 Describe the processes of extinction and spontaneous recovery.
• Extinction and spontaneous recovery can occur

with classical and operant conditioning
– Extinction
– Spontaneous recovery
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.13 Describe the processes of extinction and spontaneous recovery.
• Operant conditioning
• Extinguishing operantly conditioned responses
depends on
– Strength of original learning
– Pattern of reinforcement
– Variety of setting
– Complexity of the behavior
– Learning through punishment vs. reinforcement
Generalization and Discrimination (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.14 Describe the processes of generalization and discrimination in
classical and operant conditioning.
• Can occur with classical and operant conditioning

– Stimulus control
– Stimulus generalization
– Stimulus discrimination
Generalization and Discrimination (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.14 Describe the processes of generalization and discrimination in
classical and operant conditioning.
• Response generalization
– Giving response that is somewhat different from
response originally learned to that stimulus
– Occurs with operant conditioning
New Learning Based on Original Learning
Learning Objective 5.15 Explain what is meant by higher order conditioning and
differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers.
• In classical conditioning
– New learning occurs through higher order conditioning
• In operant conditioning
– Secondary reinforcers allow for new learning
Cognitive Learning
Learning Objective 5.16 Define cognitive learning and how it can be inferred from evidence
of latent learning and cognitive maps.
• Depends on mental processes that are not directly

observable
• Observable and measurable learning
• Mental processes in learning
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
Learning Objective 5.16 Define cognitive learning and how it can be inferred from evidence
of latent learning and cognitive maps.
• Tolman study (1930)

– Rats in maze showed they were capable of latent
learning
– Hypothesized that the rats used cognitive map
Insight and Learning Sets
Learning Objective 5.17 Explain what is meant by insight and its relation to learning sets.
• Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler

– Examined another aspect of cognitive learning: sudden
insight into a problem’s solution
• Subsequent studies
– Confirmed that many other animals and humans
display insight
Learning by Observing (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.18 Explain the process of observational (vicarious) learning and the
conditions under which it is most likely to be reflected in behavior.
• Social learning theorists

• Observational (or vicarious) learning
– Learning by observing other people’s behavior based
on the punishment and rewards others receive
• Vicarious reinforcement (or punishment)
– Reinforcement or punishment experienced by models
affects willingness of others to perform behaviors
learned by observing those models
Learning by Observing (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 5.18 Explain the process of observational (vicarious) learning and the
conditions under which it is most likely to be reflected in behavior.
• Bandura study (1965)

– Children imitated aggressive behaviors they observed
– Significantly more boys and girls exhibited imitative
aggressive behaviors when rewarded
– Study important implications including how not to teach
aggression unintentionally to children
Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans
Learning Objective 5.19 Give examples of cognitive learning in nonhumans.
• Latent learning
• Learning cognitive maps
• Insight

Morr11e 05-PPT Ada Rev

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Morr11e 05-PPT Ada Rev

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Understanding Psychology

• Process by which experience or practice results in

• Three types of learning discussed in this chapter

• Type of learning in which response naturally

• Unconditioned stimulus (US)

• Conditioned stimulus (CS)

• Since people can develop phobias through

• Seligman explained CC by concept of

• Behaviors emitted in presence of specific stimuli

• Essential components of operant conditioning

• Also called “principle of reinforcement”

• Operantly conditioned response

• Process of reinforcing successive approximations

• Failure to avoid or escape from unpleasant or

• Extinction and spontaneous recovery can occur

• Can occur with classical and operant conditioning

• Depends on mental processes that are not directly

• Tolman study (1930)

• Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler

• Social learning theorists

• Bandura study (1965)

You might also like