Thermal Comfort

Contents
• What is Thermal Comfort?
• Thermal Environment and Heat Balance
• Comfort Equation and Prediction
• Influencing Factors
• Environmental Indices
What is Thermal Comfort?

t i o n
f i ni
De - That condition of mind
which expresses satisfaction
with the thermal environment.
ISO 7730
 Thermal Environments
Thermal Comfort is a matter of many
parameters - Not only the air
temperature.
 Body Temperature
37 oC 34 oC • Normal body core temperature: 37 oC.
• We have separate Heat- and Cold-
sensors.
–Heat sensor is located in hypothalamus.
Signals when temperature is higher than
37 oC.
–Cold sensors are located in the skin. Send
signals when skin temperature is below 34
o
C.
• Heating mechanism:
–Reduced blood flow.
–Shivering.
• Cooling mechanism:
– Increased blood flow.
Hot Cold
– Sweating (Evaporation).
 Perception of Thermal
Environment• Heat sensor in
Hypothalamus send
impulses when temperature
exceeds 37 oC.
• Cold sensors sends impulses
when skin temperature
below 34 oC.
• The bigger temperature
difference, the more
impulses.
• If impulses are of same
magnitude, you feel
Warm Cold thermally neutral.
impulses impulses Activity • If not, you feel cold or warm.
 The Energy Balance

Heat Heat
Produ- Lost
ced

• Thermal Comfort can only be maintained when heat produced by

metabolism equals the heat lost from body.
Heat Balance Equation

• General heat balance

S = M - W - E - (R + C)
where
S = rate of heat storage of human body
M = metabolic rate
W = mechanical work done by human body
E = rate of total evaporation loss
R + C = dry heat exchange through radiation & convection
Heat Balance Equation

• Rate of heat storage, S

• proportional to rate of change in mean body temp.
• normally, S is zero; adjusted by the thermo-
regulatory system of the body
• Metabolic rate, M
• heat released from human body per unit skin area
• depends on muscular activities, environment, body sizes, etc.; unit is
“met” (= 58.2 W/m2)
• 1 met = seated quiet person (100 W if body surface area is 1.7 m 2); see
also the table in Figure 1
Heat Balance Equation

• Mechanical work, W
• energy in human body transformed into
external mechanical work
• Evaporative heat loss, E
• release of latent heat energy from evaporation
of body fluid
• respired vapour loss, Eres (respiration heat losses: latent Erel and
sensible Erec)
• evaporative heat loss from skin Esk (include skin diffusion Edif and
regulatory sweating Ersw)
Heat Balance Equation

• Dry heat exchange, R + C

• through convective and radiative heat transfer
• heat loss by radiation if skin temp. > temp. of surrounding surfaces
• heat loss by convection if skin temp. > dry bulb temp.

• mean radiant temperature (tr) is that uniform

temp. of an imaginary black enclosure which
result in the same heat loss by radiation as
the actual enclosure
 The Energy Balance

The dry heat loss

(R+C) represents
~70% at low Clo-
values and ~60% at
higher Clo-values

 Conduction (K) is
normally insignificant
compared to the total
heat exchange

• Parameters influencing the Heat Loss from a person

 o
Conditions for Thermal Comfort
C.
• Two conditions must be fulfilled
Mean Skin Temp.

34
to maintain Thermal Comfort:
33
32 –Heat produced must equal heat
31 lost
30 –Signals from Heat- and Cold-
29
0 1 2 3 4 sensors must neutralise each
Metabolic Rate other
W/m2
• The sweat production is used
100
instead of body core
Sweat prod.

80
60 temperature, as measure of the
40 amount of warm impulses.
20 • Relation between the parameters
found empirically in experiments.
0 1 2 3 4
Metabolic Rate • No difference between sex, age,
race or geographic origin.
The Comfort Equation
Predication of Thermal Comfort

• Fanger’s comfort criteria

• developed by Prof. P. O. Fanger (Denmark)
• Fanger’s comfort equation:
f (M, Icl, V, tr, tdb, Ps) = 0
where M = metabolic rate (met)
Icl = cloth index (clo)
V = air velocity (m/s)
tr = mean radiant temp. (oC)
tdb = dry-bulb temp. (oC)
Ps = water vapour pressure (kPa)
 Predication of Thermal
Comfort
• Fanger’s equation is complex
– but it may be transformed to comfort diagrams
– it can also be used to yield three indices:
• predicted mean vote (PMV)
• predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD)
• lowest possible percentage dissatisfied (LPPD)
 Predication of Thermal
Comfort
– PMV
• a complex function of six major comfort parameters;
• predict mean value of the subjective ratings of a group
of people in a given environment
– PPD
• determined from PMV as a quantitative measure of
thermal comfort
• ‘dissatisfied’ means not voting -1, +1 or 0 in PMV
• normally, PPD < 7.5% at any location and LPPD < 6%
 Predicted Mean Vote scale
The PMV index is used to quantify the degree of
- +3 Hot
discomfort
- +2 Warm

- +1 Slightly warm

- +0 Neutral

- - 1 Slightly cool

- -2 Cool

- -3 Cold
 Calculation of PMV index

PMV = (0,303e-2,100*M + 0,028)*[(M-W)- H - Ec - Cres - Eres]

PMV ?
PMV = (0,303e-2,100*M + 0,028)*[58,15*(M-W)
-3,05*10-3*[5733-406,7*(M-W)-pa]-24,21*[(M-W)-1]
-10-3*M*(5867-pa)-0,0814*M*(34-ta)
-3,96*10-8*fcl*[(tcl+273)4 - (teq+273) 4] - fcl*hc,eq*(tcl-teq)]

1,00+0,2*Icl for Icl <0,5 clo

hc,eq = 2,38*(tcl - teq ) 0,25
fcl 1,05+0,1*Icl for Icl >0,5 clo

M [MET)] Icl [CLO]

Human Metabolism

Metabolic Rate
Fitness
Efficiency
Heat Balance Equation

• General heat balance

S = M - W - E - (R + C)
where
S = rate of heat storage of human body
M = metabolic rate
W = mechanical work done by human body
E = rate of total evaporation loss
R + C = dry heat exchange through radiation & convection
 Metabolism
• Internal energy comes
U Q W
from food  
• Oxidation of food t t t
supplies energy • U/t < 0
• Energy goes into • Must replenish U with food
– Internal functions • The metabolic rate (U/t)
– External work is the rate at which food
• Excess expelled as heat and oxygen are converted
• Rewrite in terms of to internal energy to
rates balance loss through Q & W
 Metabolic Rate
• Metabolic Rate directly U VO 2
proportional to volume of  4.8
oxygen consumed t t
• U/t in kcal/s
• VO2/t in L/s
• Can measure VO2/t to
determine metabolic rate
• Can measure W/t to
determine power output
• Use to find efficiency
 Metabolic Rates

p. 415

Basal metabolic rate is the rate when sleeping

 Physical (“Aerobic”) Fitness
• Aerobic fitness is a
measure of a person’s
maximum capacity to
use oxygen
• Increases with exercise
• Decreases without

p. 416
 Efficiency
• Body does work  can function as a
machine W t
e
• Define efficiency as before U t
• Affected by the type of work done

p. 416
Energy Balance: Input vs Output
 Body Temperature
• Normal Body Temperature (NBT) –
98.60F(370C)
• Range of NBT ----- (970F to 990F)
• Rectal Temp ----- (0.50F to 10F) above
the Oral
• Rectal Temp reflects the internal body Temp
(Core Body Temp)
• Core Body Temp remain almost constant
• Skin Temp (Shell Temp)-----Variable
 Human thermal physiology and
thermoregulation
• ASHRAE (1993) describes a single model of blood flow
and heat transfer based on that used by Gagge et al.
(1971).Normal blood flow for sedentary activity at
thermally neutral body conditions is 1.75g s−1 m−2.
• For each 1°C rise above thermo-neutral body core
temperature (36.8°C) blood flow increases by 56g
s−1m−2. For each 1°C decrease below thermo-neutral
body skin temperature (33.7°C) there is a proportional
resistance to blood flow on average.
• For the two-node model the effects of core (tcr) and
skin (tsk) temperatures (°C) on blood flow (mbl) are
given by
 Temperature Homeostasis

• Keep the body temp within a very narrow range

• Range of NBT (970F to 990F)

• Temperatures above this:

denature enzymes and block metabolic
pathways

• Temperatures below this:

slow down metabolism and affect the brain.
 Heat Balance
• Heat balance maintains the body temp
• Balance between heat production & heat loss
(Heat Balance)
• Heat Balance
• Heat production= Heat loss
• Heat production is called thermogenesis
• Heat loss is called as thermolysis
Heat Production (Thermogenesis)

• Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

• Specific Dynamic Action of food
• Activity of skeletal muscle
Shivering
Exercise
• Chemical Thermogenesis
Epinephrine &Norepinephrine
Thyroxine
 Heat Loss (Thermolysis)

• Radiation
• Conduction
• Convection
• Evaporation
• Perspiration
• Respiration
• Loss through urine & feces
Role of Skin
Heat Exchange in the Skin
Vasoconstriction and
Vasodilatation
 Thermoregulation
• Temperature is regulated by nervous feedback
mechanisms
• Thermoregulatory center located in the
Hypothalamus
• Thermoregulatory regulatory responses include
Autonomic
Somatic
Endocrine
Behavioural changes
 Feedback system
• 1) Receptor
– Sensor that responds to changes
(stimuli)
• 2) Control Center
– Sets range of values
– Evaluates input and
– Sends output
• 3) Effector-
– Receives output from control centre
– Produces a response
 Body Temperature Control System
• Hypothalamus
– Acts as a thermostat
– Receives nerve impulses
from cutaneous
thermoreceptors
– Thermoreceptors Cold
&Heat
• Hypothalamus- also has
thermoreceptors called
central thermoreceptors
• These detect changes in
blood temperature
 Thermoregulatory regulatory responses

• Activated by Exposure to Cold

1. Shivering
2. Increase voluntary activity
3. Increase TSH secretion
4. Increase Catecholamines
5. Vasoconstriction
6. Horripilation
7. Curling up
 Thermoregulatory regulatory responses

• Activated by Exposure to Heat

1. Vasodilatation
2. Sweating
3. Increase in Respiration
4. Anorexia
5. Apathy
6. Decrease TSH secretion
Thermoregulatory regulatory responses

Exposure to Cold Exposure to Heat

Shivering Vasodilatation
Increase voluntary activity Sweating
Increase TSH secretion Increase in Respiration
Increase Catecholamines Anorexia
Vasoconstriction Apathy
Horripilation Decrease TSH secretion
Curling up
 THERMOREGULATION

Control of body temperature

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Core temperature

• The core temperature of the human body is

37°C
• The core of the human body includes the
organs of the thorax, abdomen and the head
• This is where the vital organs are located
• Their enzyme systems must operate in
optimum conditions
• The periphery of the body can withstand
some deviation from the core temperature
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
 Heat loss and heat gain
The body must balance its heat budget
Heat is gained:
• by conduction from warm air surrounding the body
• by the body’s metabolic activity which generates heat
e.g. when muscle move
Heat is lost:
• by conduction and radiation to cold air (or water)
• by evaporation of sweat from the body surface
(c.f. properties of water)
• Humans can also affect their body temperature by
changing their behaviour
e.g. wearing different clothes, seeking shade

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Maintaining the body temperature
Keeping warm
Increased insulation,
subcutaneous fat reduces
the conduction of heat from
the body
Reduced sweating
decreases evaporation
Increased shivering,
increases heat produced by
muscle tissue 2 to 5 times
Staying cool
Increase blood flow to skin,
increases conduction and
radiation of heat from the
body
Increased sweat secretion,
increases evaporation
Reduced activity
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
 Core body
temperature
>37°C

Thermoreceptors

Hypothalamus
nerves Muscles of
Sweat skin arteriole
glands walls relax
Muscles increase Skin arteries dilate
reduce secretion More blood to the
activity skin.
More radiation &
conduction of heat

More water covers the

skin.
More evaporation
Less heat generated
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
 NEGATIVE Blood
FEEDBACK temperature

Muscles of
skin
Thermoreceptors arteriole
walls relax

Core body Sweat Body

nerves Return
temperature Thermoreceptors Hypothalamus glands loses to 37°C
>37°C increase heat
secretion

Muscles
reduce
activity

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Core body
temperature
<37°C

Thermoreceptors

Hypothalamus nerves
Muscles of
nerves Sweat skin arteriole
glands walls
Muscles constrict Skin arteries
decrease constrict
shivering secretion Less blood to the
skin.
Less radiation &
conduction of heat

Less water covers the

skin.
Less evaporation
More heat
generated
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
 NEGATIVE Blood
FEEDBACK temperature

Muscles of
skin
arteriole
Thermoreceptors walls
constrict Body
nerves
loses
Core body Sweat less Return
temperature Thermoreceptors Hypothalamus glands heat to 37°C
<37°C decrease
secretion

Body
Muscles gains
nerves shivering heat

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 An Overview of Heat Balance

• In order to maintain
a constant core
temperature, heat
loss must match
heat gain
• Thermal gradient
from body core to
skin surface
Fig 12.1
 Thermal Balance
• Core temperature (TCO) is in dynamic
equilibrium as a result of balance between
heat gain and heat loss.
• Mean body temperature (Tbody) represents an
average of skin and internal temperatures.
 Hypothalamus Regulation of
Temperature
• Hypothalamus acts as
“thermostat” that
makes
thermoregulatory
adjustments to
deviations from
temperature norm in
the brain (37 C ± 1 C
or 98.6±1.8 F ).
Hypothalamus Regulation of
Temperature
• Mechanisms are
activated in two ways:
– Thermal receptors in
skin provide input to
central command
– Direct stimulation of
hypothalamus through
changes in blood
temperature perfusing
area
Thermoregulation
 HOMEOSTASIS

Ability of the body to

maintain a relatively
constant internal
environment necessary for
life.
Overview: Temperature Regulation

Cyclic
representation

Linear
representatio
n
 Temperature Regulation
Allows humans to cope with a wide range
of environments
 Temperature Regulation
Mammals are endothermic homeotherms,
which is a very precise way of saying
they regulate their own body temperature.
It is worth noting that not all organisms
do so because it would in fact be
disadvantageous for some to do so.
Furthermore some organisms regulate
their body temperature solely through
behavioural methods.
 Temperature Regulation
In humans it is the core
body temperature
which is maintained by
homeostasis.
 Components
•1. Thermoreceptors in the skin
Receptors •2. Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus

The thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus

Coordinator (subdivided into heat gain centre and heat loss
centre)

•Sweat glands
•Hair erector muscles
Effectors •Arterioles supplying skin capillaries
•Skeletal muscles
•Glands
Hypothalamus (of a sheep)
Hypothalamus (of a sheep)
Hypothalamus
Skin based effectors
Skin based effectors
Skin based effectors
 Skin based effectors – responding to heat gain

Effector Response

Arterioles The muscles relax – this is known as vasodilation. The

effect of this is to increases the blood flow to the
supplying skin surface of the skin causing increased heat loss by
capillaries radiation.
The glands secrete sweat onto the surface of the skin.
The sweat is composed mainly of water, which
Sweat glands evaporates from the skin surface. As water has a high
latent heat of evaporation the evaporating sweat
removes heat from the surface of the skin.
The muscles relax – this lowers the hairs on the skin
Hair erector surface. The hairs do not trap air when laid flat so they
muscles allow heat to be removed more easily by convection.
 Skin based effectors – responding to heat loss

Effector Response
The muscle contract – this is known as
Arterioles vasoconstriction. Blood flows through the shunt
supplying skin vessel as this is the path of least resistance. Less
blood flows to the surface of the skin so there is less
capillaries heat loss by radiation.

The sweat glands stop producing sweat therefore

Sweat glands stopping the heat loss of evaporating sweat.

The muscle contract – this raises the hairs on the

Hair erector surface of the skin. The effect of this is to reduce
muscles airflow therefore reducing convection of heat from the
skin.
Shivering
 Metabolic changes

control metabolism (conversion of oxygen

and calories to energy).
produces hormones that are vital to life, such as cortisol (which helps regulate
metabolism and helps your body respond to stress) and aldosterone (which
helps control blood pressure).
 Responding to vigorous exercise
 stimulus is the increase in blood temperature
 this is caused by exercise/increased respiration/muscle
contraction
 the increase blood temperature is detected by receptors in the
hypothalamus
 the hypothalamus also acts as the co-ordinator
 the effectors are muscles of arterioles and sweat glands
 response to arteriole muscles stimulation is
vasodilation
 which causes increased blood flow to the skin
capillaries
 which causes increased heat loss by radiation
 response to sweat gland stimulation is increased
sweating
 which causes increased heat loss by the latent
heat of evaporation
 Roles of the Skin

evaporative
cooling
insulation

vasodilation and Fig. 6.1

vasoconstriction
 Roles of the Skin
Radiation
Conduction
Convection

Modulated by vasodilation
and vasoconstriction

From Guyton,
Medical Physiology
 Roles of the Skin
Fig. 6.1

maximum rate of perspiration

= 2-3 L H2O/hr

Na+, Cl-, K+, urea, and lactic acid

are also excreted in sweat.

evaporative
cooling
 Central Control of Body Temperature
• Controlled Variable
– temperature of body core
• Set Point
– 37oC
• Receptors
– central thermoreceptors: in hypothalamus of brain
– peripheral thermoreceptors: in skin (mostly affect behavior,
very little role in regulating core temperature)
• Control Center
– hypothalamus
• Effectors
– dermal blood vessels
– skeletal muscle
– endocrine glands
– brown fat
– sweat glands