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Kul NBS
Kul NBS
Structural lesion
→Supra vs Infra-Tentorial Lesion
→ Signs of Rostro-Caudal deterioration
COMA
Supra-Tentorial Infra-Tentorial Diffuse
Encephalopathy
•Usually Normal size •Midbrain lesion : •Usually Normal size
(3-4 mm) & reactive Midsized (±5 mm) & reactive
Pupil Size & • Trans-tentorial & unreactive •Opiates : pinpoint &
Light reaction Herniation : •Pontine : sometimes unreactive
Large (>7 mm) Pinpoint (1-1.5 mm) •Anticholinergics :
& unreactive & unreactive large & unreactive
•Usually Asymmetric
Motor •Symmetric: •Asymmetric: unilateral •Usually Symmetric
responses Trans-tentorial •Symmetric: bilateral •Asymmetric:Hypo/
Herniation Hyperglycemia/Hepatic Coma
Hallmark of Metabolic Encephalopathy: pupil reactive in the presence of impaired brainstem function
COMA
Doll’s eye
Ventilatory Pupil Pupillary maneuver/ Gag Response to
Pattern Size response Caloric reflex Painful
Testing stimuli
Hemispheres Cheyne-Stokes Small (+) (+) (+) Purposeful/
Localizing
Early Normal Small (+) (+) (+) Purposeful/
Diencephalic (±2 mm) Localizing
Late Normal Small (+) (+) (+) Decorticate
Diencephalic
Midbrain Neurogenic Midsize (-) Adduction (+) Decerebrate
hyperventilation (±5 mm) (-)
Neurogenic ±5 mm/ (-)/(+) with Decerebrate/
Pons hyperventilation/ pinpoint magnifying Totally (-) (+) Flaccid (-)
Apneustic glass
Medulla Ataxic ±5 mm (-) Totally (-) (-) Flaccid (-)
(Oblongata)
COMA
2. Specific Therapy
COMA
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
1. Locked-in State
* Infarction of the basis pontis
* Paralysis of lower cranial nerve and limb muscles
with preserved alertness and respiration
* Communication through blinking or eye movements
and yes-or-no questions
2. Vegetative State
* Preservation of vegetative functions (sleep-wake cycles,
autonomic control and respiratory function)
* No evidence of inner or outer awareness
* Persistent → ≥1 month
COMA
3. Brain Death
* No function of Cerebrum or Brainstem
* Cardiovascular is the only spontaneous activity
* Standards for determination of BRAIN DEATH
(President’s Commision for the Study of Ethical Problems in
Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research 1981)
1. Unresponsiveness
2. Absent Brain Stem Reflexes
2.1. Pupillary/Corneal/Oropharyngeal/Oculocephalic (Doll’s
eye maneuver)/Vestibulo-ocular (Caloric test) → (-)
2.2. Apnea test → O2 100% + pCO2 60 mmHg → no breath
3. Irreversibility of Brain Dysfunction → The cause must be known
No sedative drug intoxication, hypothermia, neuromuscular blockade, shock.
4. Persistence of Brain Dysfunction → 6 hours with confirmatory flat
EEG/12 hours without confirmatory flat EEG/24 hours for anoxic Brain injury
COMA
References :
1. Adams RD, Victor M. Coma and Related Disorders of Consciousness. In:
Principles of Neurology, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, 1993: 300 – 318.
2. Aminoff MJ, Greenberg DA, Simon RP. Coma. In: Clinical Neurology, 3 rd ed.
Appleton & Lange, 1996: 255 – 306.
3. Brust JCM. Coma. In: Brust JCM. Current Diagnosis & Treatment in
Neurology. Lange Med Books/McGraw-Hill, 2007: 29 – 34.
4. Chandra B. Pandangan Umum mengenai Koma. In: Harsono, ed. Kapita
Selekta Neurologi. Gajah Mada University Press, 1993: 1 – 24.
5. Gilroy J. Coma. In: Basic Neurology, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2000: 61 – 70.
STROKE
DEFINITION (WHO) :
STROKE
ISCHEMIC HEMORRHAGE
STROKE
Infark Emboli
Infark
Thrombotic
Intra-Cerebral
Hemorrhage
Sub-Arachnoid
Hemorrhage
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
ISCHEMIC
STROKE
REVERSIBLE
TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC
PROGRSSIVE STROKE COMPLETED STROKE
ISCHEMIC ATTACK NEUROLOGICAL
DEFICIT
RESOLVE
RESOLVE
COMPLETELY BECOME WORSE AND CLINICALLY
COMPLETELY
> 24 Hours – FEW WORSE STABLE
≤ 24 Hours
DAYS/WEEKS
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
Pathophysiology
The rule of Hagen-Pouisseuille
Q : Cerebral Blood Flow
P : Perfussion pressure
Pxr⁴ r⁴ : diameter of the vessels
L : the length of the vessels
Q = ----------- X ------
n : Blood viscosity
Lxn 8 : Constanta
8
CBF : 50 – 60 ml/100 gr/mnt
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
Atherosclerosis Timeline
Complicated
Foam Fatty Intermediate Fibrous Lesion/
Cells Streak Lesion Atheroma Plaque Rupture
Endothelial Dysfunction
From First From Third From Fourth
Decade
Adapted from Pepine CJ. Am J Cardiol. Decade
1998;82(suppl 10A):23S-27S. Decade
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
Pathophysiology
50-55 mL/100 g/minute NORMAL
ANAEROBIC METABOLISM
Glucose → 2 ATP + Lactic Acid
(Neurotoxic)
Sodium Pump Failure
CLINICAL FINDINGS
Cardinal :
CLINICAL FINDINGS
Specific :
1. Anterior Cerebral Artery
* Contra-lateral Hemiparesis with the Leg more affected
than the arm
* Urinary incontinence
* Lack of motivation, or agitation
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
CLINICAL FINDINGS
Specific :
2. Middle Cerebral Artery
* The Motor & Sensory deficits are greater in the Face &
Arm than in the leg
* Contra-lateral Hemiparesis with similarly affected in the
arm and leg (deep perforating artery = Lenticulostriate
artery)
* Aphasia (Dominant Hemisphere), or Hemineglect &
spatial disorders (Nondominant Hemisphere)
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
CLINICAL FINDINGS
Specific :
4. VERTEBRO-BASILAR ARTERY
* Alternans Hemiparesis
* Ataxia/Vertigo/Dysphagia
* Decreased of Consciousness
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
RISK FACTORS
MODIFIABLE ISCHEMIC BLEEDING
Arterial Hypertension (+) (+)
Diabetes Mellitus (+) (-)
Cardiac Disease (esp Atrial Fibrilation) (+) (-)
Hypercholesterolemia (+) (-)
Cigarette Smoking/Tobacco Use (+) (±)
Obesity (+) (-)
Alcohol Abuse (+) (±)
Drug Abuse (±) (+)
Oral Contraseptive Use (Estrogen) (+) (±)
Hyperhomocysteinemia (+) (-)
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
Age
Gender/Sex → Men > Women
Race → Blacks > Asians & Hispanics > Whites
Family History/Genetic
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
DIAGNOSIS
HEAD CT-SCAN :
* the quickest & easiest initial examination that can be
differentiated between Ischemic and hemorrhage
* negative hyper-dense spot rules out ICH
HEAD MRI/MRA
* The best for Ischemic Stroke, esp to look for
Brainstem Stroke
* Better than Head CT-Scan to ruled out Brain Tumor
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
TREATMENT
Thrombolytic Therapy :
* Use recombinant tissue Plasminogen Activator (rt-PA)
* Indicated for patient with clearly defined time of onset
within 3 hours of start treatment
* Only for patient who meet the inclusion & exclusion
criteria used in the NINDS trial.
* The risk is bleeding trasformation
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
TREATMENT
Anti-Hypertensive :
* Acute phase:
Avoiding antihypertensive Tx for the 1st 72 hours
→ BP usually ↓ without Tx over the 1st several hours or days
* Chronic phase:
↓ BP < 140/90 or How Low Can You Go with
Start Low Go Slow
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
PREVENTION
Controlled HYPERTENSION
* Hypertension is the most common & powerful factor
for Stroke
* Every 10-mm Hg increase in Systolic BP
→ the relative risk of Stroke ↑ 1.7 – 1.9
* ↓ Systolic BP to < 140 mm Hg
→ ↓ the risk of 1st Stroke by 40%
→ keep the BP < 140/90 (or < 130/80, if Diabetic)
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
PREVENTION
Controlled CARDIAC DISEASE
* Stroke risk is 2 X for pts with Coronary Artery Disease
* Stroke risk is 4 X for pts with Congestive Heart Failure
* Atrial Fibrillation is responsible for 50% of Embolic
Strokes
Controlled DIABETES
* increased relative risk of Stroke between 1.6 – 6.0
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
PREVENTION
Controlled HYPERLIPIDEMIA
* Strongly associated with ↑ risk of CAD, but less so
with an ↑ risk of Stroke
* Subsequent studies found a > consistent association
between lipid abnormalities & Ischemic Stroke
* Use Statins → beyond lipid reducing effects
= stabilize atherosclerotic plaques
= enhance endothelial function & microvascular
blood flow, & neuroprotective agents
= anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic
STROKE
ISCHEMIC
PREVENTION
Cessation of SMOKING
* the biological effects of smoking:
= ↑ platelet aggregation
= ↓ vascular distensibility & compliance
= ↓ HDL levels
* the proportion of Strokes attributable to tobacco use
(current, previous, & 2nd hand) is nearly one third
ETIOLOGY/PATHOFISIOLOGY/PATHOGENESIS
The most common underlying cause is HYPERTENSION
Chronic Hypertension → structural changes in the wall of
penetrating arteries → micro-aneurysm of Charcot-Bouchard
→ rupture → bleeding intraparenchymal
Acute Hypertension → sudden increase in BP → ICH in
normotensive or chronically hypertensive patients
Normotensive & elderly → Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy →
accumulation of amyloid β-protein within the walls of
small/medium-sized leptomeningeal & cortical arteries →
displace collagen & contractile elements → brittle & weakened
artery → spontaneous bleeding
Others: AVM, Congenital/Saccular Aneurysm, Anticoagulant Tx, ITP, DIC, etc.
STROKE
INTRACEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE
CLINICAL FINDINGS
2. Surgical Treatment
2.1. Indicated (Yatsu, 1995) :
2.1.1. Hematoma volume between 30 and 80 cc.
2.1.2. GCS between 7 and 10.
2.1.3. Lobar Hemorrhage
2.1.4. Cerebellar hemorrhage > 1.5 cm with 4th ventricular
distortion and/or ventricular enlargement
2.1.5. Cerebellar hemorrhage > 1.5 cm with reduction in
sensorium and/or gaze palsy
STROKE
INTRACEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE
Treatment :
2. Surgical Treatment
2.2. AHA Guidelines 1999
Therapeutic CRITERIA
Approach
1. Pts with cerebellar hemorrhage > 3 cm who are neurologically deteriorating
or who have clinical or radiographic evidence of symptomatic brainstem
compression or hydrocephalus from ventricular obstruction
Surgical Candidates 2. ICH associated with aneurysm, AVM, or cavernous malformation, if pts have
a chance for good outcome and lesion is surgically accessible
3. Young pts with moderate or large lobar hemorrhage who are clinically
deteriorating
Non-Surgical 1. Pts with small hemorrhages or minimal neurologic deficits
Candidates 2. Pts with a GCS < 5, except for cerebellar hemorrhages with brainstem
compression
Best Therapy Unclear All other patients
STROKE
INTRACEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE
Complications :
1. Gastrointestinal hemorrhage → within the 1st week
2. SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate secretion of AntiDiuretic
Hormone) → Hyponatremia
3. Brain herniation
Prognosis :
30 – 70% die in 1 to 30 days
Survivors sometimes achieve a surprisingly good recovery,
since the hemorrhage has to some extent pushed brain
tissue aside rather than destroying it.
STROKE
INTRACEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE
References :
1. Adams RD, Victor M. Cerebrovascular Diseases. In: Principles of Neurology,
5th ed. McGraw-Hill, 1993: 669 – 748.
2. Allah A, Kuswara FF, Limoa A, Wuysang G. Gangguan Peredaran darah Otak
(Stroke). In: Harsono. Kapita Selekta Neurologi. Gajah Mada University
Press, 1993: 25 – 47.
3. Aminoff MJ, Greenberg DA, Simon RP. Stroke. In: Clinical Neurology, 3 rd ed.
Appleton & Lange, 1996: 255 – 287.
4. Bernstein RA. Cerebrovascular Disease: Hemorrhagic Stroke. In: Brust JCM.
Current Diagnosis & Treatment in Neurology. Lange Med Books/McGraw-
Hill, 2007: 126 – 147.
5. Gilroy J. Intracerebral, Pontine, and Intracerebellar Hemorrhage. In: Basic
Neurology, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2000: 297 – 306.
6. Yatsu FM, Grotta JC, Pettigrew LC. Stroke: 100 Maxims. Edward Arnold,
1995.
STROKE
SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE
PATHOLOGY/PATHOGENESIS/PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
80% is caused by rupture of Saccular aneurysm =
(Congenital) berry aneurysm (inherited weakness of the vessel
wall, especially at sites of branching)
85 - 95% of berry aneurysm occur in the anterior
portion of the circle of Wilis
5 - 10% is caused by rupture of AVM
Rupture → acute elevation of blood pressure
→ ↑ ICP → distorts pain sensitive structure
→ headache
→ ↓ CBF → ↓ consciousness
→ subhyaloid retinal hemorrhage
STROKE
SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE
EPIDEMIOLOGY :
5 – 10% of all Strokes
Occurs between ages 40 – 60, with peak
between ages 55 – 65
Differential Diagnosis
TREATMENT :
1. Medical Management
* General supportive treatment
* Reduce BP to ± systolic 160 mmHg, but prevent from
hypotension
* Nimodipine 60 mg every 4 hours for 21 days
Carefull with hypotension (main adverse effect)
* Prophylactic anticonvulsant is a wise option
STROKE
SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE
TREATMENT :
2. Surgical Treatment
* Hunt & Hess grades 1-3
* Early intervention (within 2 days after the onset)
* For obliterate ruptured aneurysm & prevent
rebleeding
STROKE
SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE
COMPLICATIONS :
1. Rebleeding
* 4 – 10% in the 1st 24 – 48 hours after then onset with a
mortality rate of 70%
* The risk in the 1st month after rupture is ± 30%
2. Vasospasm
* The incidence is 30%
* Most common between days 4 – 14, with peaks by days
10 – 14, and spontaneously resolving after 21 days of
rupture aneurysm
* The mortality rate is 14 – 20%
STROKE
SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE
COMPLICATIONS :
3. Hydrocephalus
4. Seizures occur in 10 – 20% of cases
PROGNOSIS
10 – 20 % die before reaching a hospital
25 – 30% die within the 1st 24 hours, 25 – 50% die
within 30 days & another 25% die after 3 months
The risk of rebleeding in survivors is ↓ after 6 mo
STROKE
SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE
References :
1. Adams RD, Victor M. Cerebrovascular Diseases. In: Principles of Neurology,
5th ed. McGraw-Hill, 1993: 669 – 748.
2. Allah A, Kuswara FF, Limoa A, Wuysang G. Gangguan Peredaran darah Otak
(Stroke). In: Harsono. Kapita Selekta Neurologi. Gajah mada University
Press, 1993: 25 – 47.
3. Aminoff MJ, Greenberg DA, Simon RP. Stroke. In: Clinical Neurology, 3 rd ed.
Appleton & Lange, 1996: 255 – 287.
4. Bernstein RA. Cerebrovascular Disease: Hemorrhagic Stroke. In: Brust JCM.
Current Diagnosis & Treatment in Neurology. Lange Med Books/McGraw-
Hill, 2007: 126 – 147.
5. Gilroy J. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. In: Basic Neurology, 3 rd ed. McGraw-
Hill, 2000: 279 – 295.
HYPERTENSIVE ENCEPHALOPATHY
Definition :
A syndrome characterized by marked elevation of BP and
evidence of increased ICP
Differential Diagnosis :
Diagnosis of exclusion
Stroke (Ischemic & Hemorrhage)
HYPERTENSIVE ENCEPHALOPATHY
TREATMENT:
Rapid resolution occurs when the BP is lowered
In the 1st hour, diastolic BP should not ↓ < 100
PROGNOSIS :
Untreated → Stroke, Coma, and Death
Prompt treatment → full clinical recovery
HYPERTENSIVE ENCEPHALOPATHY
References :
1. Adams RD, Victor M. Cerebrovascular Diseases. In: Principles of
Neurology, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, 1993: 734 - 735.
2. Aminoff MJ, Greenberg DA, Simon RP. Disorders of Cognitive Function:
Approach to Diagnosis & Acute Confusional States. In: Clinical
Neurology, 3rd ed. Appleton & Lange, 1996: 40 – 41.
3. Jay CA. Systemic & Metabolic Disorders. In: Brust JCM. Current
Diagnosis & Treatment in Neurology. Lange Med Books/McGraw-Hill,
2007: 497 – 498.
4. Gilroy J. Cerebrovascular Disease. In: Basic Neurology, 3rd ed. McGraw-
Hill, 2000: 262 – 263.
APHASIA
Loss/impairment of language function as a
result of Brain damage in language-dominant
hemisphere
References :
DEMENTIA
CORTICAL SUBCORTICAL
Diagnostic Tests
Laboratory Examination
CBC, glucose, LFT, RFT, serum electrolytes, Thyroid
function, B12 & folate levels, & syphilis serology
Neuroimaging
CT-Scan, MRI, PET-Scan & SPECT
Neuropsychological testing
DEMENTIA
Essential of Diagnosis
Insidious onset and gradual progression of memory loss
Short-term memory impairment and forgetfulness
Impairment of one or more other cognitive domains,
including aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, or executive functioning
Dementia Evaluation
Screening with Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE)
Laboratory studies to look for treatable disorders
Neuroimaging studies with Head CT-Scan or MRI
PET or SPECT not available in Indonesia
DEMENTIA
ALZHEIMER DISEASE
Differential Diagnosis
1. Delirium → rapid deterioration + fluctuating of alertness
2. Other Dementias: VD/NPH, etc
TREATMENT
3. Cholinesterase inhibitors:
Donepezil/Rivastigmine/Galantamine
4. NMDA receptor antagonists: Memantine
DEMENTIA
VASCULAR DEMENTIA
Essential of Diagnosis
Cognitive change has a subcortical typology
Decreased concentration, slowed thinking (bradyphrenia), and
deficits in executive function (initiate, plan and organize)
Clinical Strokes with radiologic evidence of cerebral infarcts
Multiple large-vessel infarcts (Multi-infarct Dementia) and
Small-vessel ischemic disease/Binswanger Disease (multiple
lacunes in the basal ganglia/subcortical/periventricular white
matter)
Evidence of relationship between the Dementia & Stroke(s)
Motor dysfunction, sometimes including gait disorder
Urinary dyscontrol, typically incontinence or frequency
DEMENTIA
VASCULAR DEMENTIA
Diagnostic Criteria
No Radiologic or Laboratory findings confirm specifically
Typically pts may have deficits in executive function including
decreased speed of processing and difficulty with initiation
The absence of pathologic changes characteristic of AD or
another neurodegenerative condition on autopsy
Hachinski scale is ≥ 7
Depression 1 point
Essential of Diagnosis
Triad of symptoms: gait (ataxic), bladder function
(incontinent) & mentation (dementia)
Gait disorder, typically wide-based “magnetic” gait, with short
stride → the most frequent symptom
Urinary dyscontrol, typically incontinence or frequency and
urgency
Cognitive change or Dementia, typically subcortical in nature
Cognitive symptoms usually occur after the onset of gait and
urinary dysfunction
Ventricular enlargement without commensurately enlarged
sulci
DEMENTIA
NORMAL PRESSURE HYDROCEPHALUS
DEMENTIA
NORMAL PRESSURE HYDROCEPHALUS
Diagnosis of Choice :
Head CT-Scan, or preferably MRI
Ventricular enlargement out of proportion to peripheral sulcal
enlargement
Special Test :
Determining the likelihood of responsiveness of the syndrome
to CSF shunting with large-volume (40 mL) Lumbar Puncture
TREATMENT :
VP (Ventriculo-Peritoneal) shunt
DEMENTIA
MILD COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT
Essential of Diagnosis
Subjective memory complaints
Objective evidence of memory impairment→ impaired delayed recall
performance or difficulty benefiting from semantic cues during learning or
recall
Normal function in activities of daily living
Preserved general cognitive function
Not a disease but is considered to be transitional state between
normal cognitive function and AD
Special Test :
MMSE not useful → Formal Cognitive test