JIMMA UNIVERSITY

JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

School of chemical engineering

Principles of food technology
Chapter 5
Lecture 1
Food production , packaging and
storage
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• Content
 Introduction
 Process design for liquid food such as milk and juice
 Concentration by thermal and membrane process
 Food packaging and product shelf life
 Modified atmosphere and controlled atmosphere
storage
 Aseptic packaging , freezing and thawing calculation
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Food processing
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Food processing stage
1. primary stage and
2. Secondary stage food processing

primary stage
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• On primary food processing there is minimum change to
physical state of foods
Primary processing methods
 Harvesting
 Cleaning
 Grading
 Milling
 Sorting
 Weighting
 Delivering
 Some primarily packaging
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• Secondary stage processing
 Convert ingredient in to edible products.
 The method utilize to transform primary food process
product in to on other food products.
• secondary processing methods
• Mixing
• Kneading
• Cooking
• Canning
• Fermenting
• baking
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 to make them safe to consume and edible

Help to enhance shelf life of food
Help to ensure wide choice all year around
Enhance sensory attribute
Make more convenient for busy consumers
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Milk process design
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• Milk varies in physical and chemical composition depending
on various factors. Generally,
 Fat exists at levels of 3–4% in whole milk: 95%
Triglyceride
 Protein (1.2;3.4):80% casein
 Carbohydrate (Milk sugar) ~ 5%: primarily Lactose
 Ash (~ 1%) and Total milk solids (12.2,12.6)
 Average composition of water in milk is ~ 87-88%
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• Proteins are an extremely important class of
naturally occurring compounds that are essential to
all life processes.
• They perform a variety of functions in living
organisms ranging from providing structure to
reproduction.
• Milk proteins represent one of the greatest
contributions of milk to human nutrition.
• Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Only 20
different amino acids occur, regularly in proteins.
General Structure of Protein
R represents the organic radical
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• Each amino acid has a different radical and this affects the
properties of the acid. The content and sequence of amino acids in a
protein therefore affect its properties.
• Some proteins contain substances other than amino acids, e.g.
lipoproteins contain fat and protein. Such proteins are called
conjugated proteins:
Conjugated Proteins
• Phosphoproteins:-Phosphate is linked chemically to these proteins-
examples include casein in milk and Phosphoproteins in egg yolk.
• Lipoproteins:-These combinations of lipid and protein are excellent
emulsifying agents. Lipoproteins are found in milk and egg yolk.
• Chromo proteins:-These are proteins with a coloured prosthetic
group and include haemoglobin and myoglobin.
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• Casein is easily separated from milk, either by
acid precipitation or by adding rennin.
• In cheese-making most of the casein is
recovered with the milk fat. Casein can also be
recovered from skim milk as a separate
product.
• Caseins are hydrophobic but Κ-casein
contains a hydrophilic portion known as the
glycomacropeptide and it is this that stabilises
the micelles. The structure of the micelles is
not fully understood.
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• When the pH of milk is changed, the acidic or basic
groups of the proteins will be neutralised.
• At the pH at which the positive charge on a protein
equals exactly the negative charge, the net total
charge of the protein is zero. This pH is called the
isoelectric point of the protein (pH 4.6 for casein).
• If an acid is added to milk, or if acid-producing
bacteria are allowed to grow in milk, the pH falls.
As the pH falls the charge on casein falls and it
precipitates. Hence milk curdles as it sours, or the
casein precipitates more completely at low pH.
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whey
• After the fat and casein have been removed from
milk, one is left with whey, which contains the soluble
milk salts, milk sugar and the remainder of the milk
proteins.
• Like the proteins in eggs, whey proteins can be
coagulated by heat. When coagulated, they can be
recovered with caseins in the manufacture of acid-
type cheeses.
• The whey proteins are made up of a number of
distinct proteins, the most important of which are β-
lactoglobulin and lactoglobulin
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• After the fat and casein have been removed
from milk, one is left with whey, which
contains the soluble milk salts, milk sugar and
the remainder of the milk proteins.
• Like the proteins in eggs, whey proteins can be
coagulated by heat. When coagulated, they can
be recovered with caseins in the manufacture
of acid-type cheeses.
• The whey proteins are made up of a number
of distinct proteins, the most important of
which are β-lactoglobulin and lactoglobulin
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Other milk proteins
• Milk contains a number of enzymes. The main enzymes present
are lipases, which cause rancidity, particularly in homogenised
milk, and phosphatase enzymes, which catalyse the hydrolysis of
organic phosphates.
• Peroxidase enzymes, which catalyse the breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen, are also present. Lactoperoxidase
can be activated and use is made of this for milk preservation.
• Milk also contains protease enzymes, which catalyse the
hydrolysis of proteins, and lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin,
the immune globulins and lactoferrin, which protect the young
calf against infection.
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Physicochemical properties of milk

• Milk might seem to be a simple white liquid and a complex
mixture of a wide range of compounds.
• The gross properties of milk include:
 Milk is an emulsion of fat globules, and

 A suspension of casein micelles (casein, Ca, P) forming Colloidal

dispersion
 All of which are suspended in an aqueous phase, that contains
solubilized lactose, whey proteins, and some minerals
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• General aspects milk processing

– Milk is liquid and homogenous….> storage &
transport is relatively simple
– Milk properties vary according to source, season,
storage conditions
– Milk is highly perishable
– Raw milk may contain spoilage and pathogenic
microorganisms
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• Objectives of the process:

– Safety of the product to the consumer

– Quality of the products
• Nutritional value, eating quality, appearance, keeping
quality
• Usage properties: spreadability, whippability,
dispersability, ease of handling
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• Milk storage and transport

– Aim–having good quality milk available where and when

needed for processing
• Milk collection and reception

– Milk may be supplied in milk cans (churns) or by a tanker

to the dairy industry
– Milk in cans usually has a temperature > 10°C
• Bacterial growth can occur
– Mesophilic bacteria …> produce lactic acid…> souring
– Pseudomonads …> non –souring spoilage
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• On reception at the dairy plant, milk is cooled to < 6°C

– helps to stabilize its bacteriological quality…> for at most 2 days

• Tank milk has been kept at low temperature

– Contains psychrotrops…needs another treatment than milk in

cans
• Odor, appearance, temp and pH are routinely examined to identify
poor quality milk supplies
• Intake pipe of milk tanker can be equipped with a continuously
recording thermometer & pH meter that may switch off the intake
pump if the values recorded exceed a predetermined level
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• Problems during milk storage:

1. Bacterial growth:
– Maximum keeping quality of raw milk in storage tanks is mainly
determined by the growth of psychrotrops
– E.g. prior to processing – if the number of bacteria > 5x105 /mL …>
risk
– All milk supplies should be cooled to < 4°C
– Pasteurization at 75°C/15 sec is not desirable ….> it will be done
later on, pasteurizing twice may impair the quality of finished product
but 65°C/15 sec called thermalization can be applied …> storage 6-
7°C
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• Problems during milk storage:

1. Bacterial growth:
– Maximum keeping quality of raw milk in storage tanks is mainly
determined by the growth of psychrotrops
– E.g. prior to processing – if the number of bacteria > 5x10 5 /mL …>
risk
– All milk supplies should be cooled to < 4°C
– Pasteurization at 75°C/15 sec is not desirable ….> it will be done
later on, pasteurizing twice may impair the quality of finished
product but 65°C/15 sec called thermalization can be applied …>
storage 6-7°C
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. physical changes:

– Raw or thermalized milk stored at low temperature

creams rapidly
• Can be avoided by regular stirring. E.g. 2 min/hr

– Damage to fat globules

• Due to air incorporation
• Temp fluctuatio
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Transport of milk in the dairy industry
– To move the milk, a dairy needs systems of:
• Pipelines, pumps, valves and controlling units
• Problems:
1. Milk losses
• Residues after processing in pipes
• Spillage, during mixing
2. Damage to milk
• Air incorporation
• Excessive shear rates and intense turbulence during transport
avoiding narrow and long pipes as well as obstacles (e.g., sharp
bends) in the pipeline system
3. Bacterial growth
• During transport, contamination by bacteria can occur
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• Thermalization
• The importance of thermalization is to prevent
fat and protein breakdown by heat-resistant
enzymes of psychrotrophic bacteria.
• A heat treatment of lower intensity than low
pasteurization, usually 20 s at 60–69°C
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Milk Processing Technology
• Pasteurization
• Homogenization
• Fortification
• Bleaching

• The most important unit operations in dairy

processing: Chiller, cream separator,
pasteurizer, sterilizer, homogenizer, Packaging,
Incubation and cheese processing machineries
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Pasteurization
•

Fluid milk is pasteurized to destroy pathogenic bacteria, yeasts

and molds
• Pasteurization minimizes the likelihood of disease and
extends the storage life of milk.
• Thermal processing of milk/dairy ingredients at the following
times and temperatures:
• 63⁰C for 30 minutes-LTLT pasteurization
• 72⁰C for 15seconds-flash method and HTST method of
pasteurization.
• 88 ⁰C for 1 second, 94 ⁰C for 0.1 second, 96 ⁰C for 0.05
second and 100 ⁰C for 0.01 second.
• Pasteurizers: A plate type heat exchangers
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• (ultra pasteurization) is pasteurization that occurs at higher
temperatures with a different time:
• (138–150 ⁰C) for 2–6 seconds
• “Ultra pasteurized when used to describe a dairy ingredient
means that such ingredient shall have been thermally processed
at or above 138 degrees C for at least 2 seconds.”
• The use of sterilization temperatures in combination with the
use of presterilized containers, under sterile conditions, creates
ultra high temperatures (UHT) processing. It does not allow
spoilage or pathogenic bacteria to enter the milk.
• If packaging too is sterilized, the package is referred to as being
“aseptically packaged.” Thus, milk treated in this manner may
be safely stored up to 3 months or longer.
• The milk does not require refrigeration until it is opened.
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Homogenization
• The primary function of homogenization is to prevent
creaming, or the rising of fat to the top of the container of
milk (whole or some low-fat milk).
• The result is that milk maintains a more uniform
composition with improved body and texture, a whiter
appearance, richer flavour, and more digestible curd.
• Homogenization mechanically increases the number and
reduces the size of the fat globules.
• Milk may be homogenized prior to or subsequent to
pasteurization. The homogenization process is completed
at a fast rate to ensure the control of bacteria and loss
of quality.
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• Characteristics of homogenized milk include the
following
 No creaming or separation of cream to the top of the
container.
 Whiter milk due to a finer dispersions of fat. There is
an increase in the absorption and reflection of light due
to the smaller fat particles.
 More viscous and creamy milk due to a greater number
of fat particles.
 More bland due to smaller fat particles.
 Decreased fat stability as fat globule membranes are
broken.
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Fortification
 The addition of fat-soluble vitamins A and D to whole
milk.
 Low-fat milk, non fat milk, and low-fat chocolate
milk must be fortified (usually before pasteurization).
 The expected out put of Fortification process is
that: to increase the viscosity and appearance, as
well as the nutritive value of low-fat milk, non fat
milk solids (MSNF).
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Bleaching
• Bleaching agents such as benzoyl peroxide or its mixture with
potassium alum, calcium sulfate and magnesium carbonate

• Purpose of Bleaching agents: To remove pigments such as

carotenoids and chlorophylls in the milk

• Dosage: < 0.002% of the weight of the bleached milk and the
potassium alum, calcium sulfate, and magnesium carbonate,
individually or combined, must not be more than six times the weight
of the benzoyl peroxide.

• Vitamin A may be destroyed in the bleaching process; therefore,

sufficient vitamin A is added into the milk or in the case of cheese
processing to the curd .
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Diversified milk products
• Fluid milk
– Pasteurized milk, Cultured milk, Flavored milk
• Evaporated and Concentrated milks
– Evaporated milk, sweetened condensed milk
• Dried milk
– Skim milk powder
• Fermentation/cultured milk
– Yogurt, sour cream, cultured butter milk
• Other milk products
– Cheese, Butter
– Ice Cream
• Imitation milk-contains no milk products at all
– It is composed of water, vegetable oil, syrup, sugar, preservatives, stabilizers
and emulsifiers. (Vitamin + Minerals
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 Process design for juice production
 High-quality juice operations are dependent upon
a source of high-quality raw material.
 Fruit juice is regarded as source of energy due to
their rich carbohydrate content and vitamin C.
 The organic acids present in the fruit juice plays a
significant role in the maintenance of the acid-
base balance in the body.
 Juice extraction can be performed by pressing or
by enzymatic treatment followed by decanting
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 For cloudy juices, further clarification might not be necessary or
may involve a coarse filtration or a controlled centrifugation to
remove large insoluble particles.
 For clear juices, complete de-pectinization by addition of
enzymes, fine filtration, or high speed centrifugation is required
to achieve visual clarity.
 The next step is usually a heat treatment or equivalent non-
thermal process to achieve a safe and stable juice.
 For a concentrate, the juice is fed to an evaporator to remove
water until the desired concentration level is obtained.
 For water removal include reverse osmosis and freeze
concentration.
 The concentrate is then ready for processing, packaging, and
storage.
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• Straining/Filtration/Clarification
 Fruit juice contains of suspended solids such as broken
fruit tissue, seed, skin & various gums, pectic substances
and proteins in colloidal suspension.
 Coarse particles removed by straining (non-corrodible
metallic screens) or sedimentation.
 If clear juice required (grape, apple, and lime juice cordial)
complete removal of all suspensions effected through
filtration or clarification with the help of fining agents and
enzymes.
 Fining agents (i) Enzymes (pectolytic, starch liquefying,
proteolytic), (ii) Mechanical finings (Infusorial earth), (iii)
Chemical finings (Gelatin, albumin, casein).
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Dearetation
• Pure juice which is extremely susceptible to the adverse
action of the residual air, is subjected, immediately after
extraction, to a high vacuum whereby most of the air as
well as other gases are removed.
• Role of Enzymes in Fruit Juice Extraction
Pectinases, cellulases, and hemicellulases are used to:
 Increased juice yield
 Improved efficiency of juice filtration
 Improved juice stability and concentration
 Enhanced juice clarity
 Reduced juice bitterness
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Problems encountered during fruit juice processing

• Browning of juice due to action of enzyme
Poly phenol oxidase inherent in fruit (i.e.
Apples).
• Foaming of fruit juice that may lead to
oxidation of vitamin C and pose problem
during filling of juice in packages.
• Bitterness of juice due to action enzyme
limonin and Naringinase (e.g. in Orange).
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Equipments for extraction, clarification and

preservation
The juicing process starts with the crushing step to
break down the cell tissue (Disintegration process).
Hammer mills
Grinding mills
Grinding disk mills
Grating mills
Stemmer/crushers
Stoned fruit mills
Turbo extractors
Refer notes and their pictures