CELL INJURY

The cell constantly makes adjustments to a changing, hostile

environment to keep the organism functioning in normal
steady state which is necessary to ensure the survival of the
organism.

Prevention of disease by the body depends on the

capacity of the affected cells to undergo self-repair and
Regeneration. i.e. adaptive-changes.
1.1 Cell injury and Cellular Adaptive
Changes
The life cycle of a cell exists on continuum that includes
normal activities and adaptation, injury or lethal changes.

Adaptation is a normal life cycle adjustment like in growth

during puberty; changes during pregnancy or aging and
stressful life style produce physiologic changes that may
lead to adaptation or disease.
 Types of cellular Adaptive-changes
When cells are exposed to one of the above noxious-stimulus they will undergo one or more of the
following types of adaptive changes:

i. Increased concentrations of normal cellular

constituents.
ii. Accumulate abnormal substances
iii. Change the cellular size or number or
iv. Undergo a lethal change.
1.1.2 Abnormal and normal accumulation of
intracellular substances
Intracellular accumulations often result from environmental
changes or an inability of the cell to process materials
(substances) that cannot be metabolized by the cells. These
substances may accumulate in the cytoplasm. As a result
common changes include:

1.Cellular swelling
2.Lipid accumulation (Fatty change process in the cytoplasm of cells).
3.Glycogen depositions (Excess deposition of glycogen in organs).
4.Calcification (precipitation of calcium in dead or chronic inflammation area)
5.Hyaline infiltration( characteristic alteration within cells or in the Extra-cellular spaces that appear
as inclusion on stained histology).
CELLULAR SWELLING
 LIPID ACCUMULATIONS
Abnormal lipid accumulation in cell. It may be of fatty acid (Steatosis) and
Cholesterol

Steatosis (Fatty Change)

Abnormal accumulation of triglycerides within parenchymal cells.
Sites: Liver (commonly), heart, muscles, kidneys
Causes: toxins, protein malnutrition, Diabetes Mellitus, obesity, anoxia and alcohol
Ex: fatty liver
GLYCOGEN ACCUMULATION
The metabolic defects concerned with the glycogen synthesis and
degradation are collectively referred to as glycogen storage diseases.

These disorders are due to defects in the enzymes.

The inherited disorders are characterized by the deposition of normal or

abnormal type of glycogen in one or more tissue
1.1.3. Changes to cellular size or numbers

 Changes in size and number of the cells are usually as a result

of response to adapt to harmful agents.
I) Atrophy
Atrophy refers to a decrease in cell size.

Causes:

Decreased work load (Disuse atrophy)

Loss of nerve supply
Inadequate nutrition
Loss of hormonal stimulation
e.g. - Uterine atrophy after menopause.
Physiologic Atrophy
e.g. - Loss of muscle bulk with ageing.
 II) Dysplasia
a. Dysplasia refers to the appearance of cells that
have undergone some atypical changes in
response to chronic irritation.
b. It is not a true adaptive process in that it serves
no specific functions.
c. It is controlled reproduction of cells, but closely
related to malignancy in that it may transform
into uncontrolled, rapid reproduction.
d. It is complete loss of normal architectural
orientation of one cell with the next both in
shape and size.

Epithelial cells are common sites for dysplastic

changes.
Eg: -Bronchial epithelium, Cervical epithelium
 II) Dysplasia
Changes in dysplasia

1. Increased number of layers of epithelial cells

2. Disorderly arrangement of cells from basal layer to the
surface layer.
3. Loss of basal polarity i.e nuclei flying away from
basement membrane.
4. Cellular and nuclear pleomorphism.
5. Increased nucleocytoplasmic ratio.
6. Nuclear hyperchromatism.
7. Increased mitotic activity
 III) Hyperplasia
It is defined as increase of tissue mass due to an
increase in the number of cells

It occurs in cells that are under increased

physiologic workload or stimulations. I.e. the
cells are capable of dividing thus increasing their
numbers.
III) Hyperplasia
Types of Hyperplasia:
a) Physiologic Hyperplasia:
occurs when there hormonal stimulation
occurs in puberty and pregnancy

b) Compensatory-Hyperplasia
Occurs in organs that are capable of regenerating
lost tissues.
Eg. When part of liver is destroyed.

c) Pathologic Hyperplasia- Is seen in abnormal

stimulation of organs with cells that are capable of
regeneration.
E.g. Enlargement of Thyroid gland due to TSH from
pituitary gland.
 IV) Hypertrophy
1. It is an increase in the size of individual cells, resulting
in increased tissue mass without an increase in the
number of cells.

2. It is usually response of a specific organ to an

increased demand for work.

Example: - Enlargement of muscles in Athletes

V) Metaplasia
Metaplasia is a reversible change in which
one type of adult cell is replaced by another
type.

• It is an adaptive substitution of one cell type

more suitable to the hostile environment for
another.

Eg. - Replacement of the normal columnar,

ciliated goblet cells of the bronchial mucosa
by Stratified squamous epithelial cells in
chronic smokers.
 CELL INJURY
1. The cell may adapt to the situation or
2. The cell may acquire a reversible injury or
3. The cell may obtain an irreversible injury & may die.
The cell may die via one of two ways:
either by necrosis or by apoptosis.

Outcomes occur depends on both the injurious agent & on

cellular factors. In other words, the result depends on the type,
severity, & duration of the injury & on the type
of the cell.
COMMON STIMULI OF CELLULAR INJURY
a) Physical agents Trauma, Burn, pressure, irradiation,
etc
b) Chemical agents Poisons, drugs, simple compounds,
etc.
c) Micro-organisms Bacteria, Virus, Fungus, Parasites

d) Hypoxia Is the most common stimuli (cause)

because of inadequate oxygen in
the blood or decreased tissue
perfusion.
e.) Genetic defects Can affect cellular metabolism
through inborn
errors of metabolism or gross
malformation
f) Nutritional imbalances Under nutrition or over nutrition

g) Immunologic reaction Hypersensitivity reaction.

CLASSIFICATION OF CELL INJURY

Cellular injury can be reversible or it may progress to irreversible change (Lethal change).

Reversible cell injury Irreversible Cell injury

Is cell injury which can be
reversed when the stimulus or
the cause of injury is removed.
Example: Ischemia
cellular injury that can not be
corrected (reversed) after the
stimulus or cause has been
removed.
Example: Infarction
IV. Reversible cellular changes & accumulations

1. Fatty change
This is accumulation of triglycerides inside parenchymal cells. It is caused by an
imbalance
between the uptake, utilization, & secretion of fat. Fatty change is usually seen in the
liver,
heart, or kidney. Fatty liver may be caused by alcohol, diabetes mellitus, malnutrition,
obesity, & poisonings. These etiologies cause accumulation of fat in the hepatocytes by
the following mechanisms:

a. Increased uptake of triglycerides into the parenchymal cells.

b. Decreased use of fat by cells.
c. Overproduction of fat in cells.
d. Decreased secretion of fat from the cells.
IV. Reversible cellular changes & accumulations

2. The accumulations of pigments

Pigments can be exogenous or endogenous. Endogenous pigments include
melanin, bilirubin, hemosiderin, & lipofuscin. Exogenous pigments include
carbon. These pigments can accumulate inside cells in different situations.
IV. Reversible cellular changes & accumulations

2. The accumulations of pigments

a. Melanin
Melanin is a brownish-black pigment produced by the melanocytes found in
the skin.
Increased melanin pigmentation is caused by suntanning &certain diseases
e.g. nevus, or malignant melanoma. Decreased melanin pigmentation is
seen in albinism & vitiligo.
IV. Reversible cellular changes & accumulations

2. The accumulations of pigments

b. Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment, mainly produced during the degradation of
hemoglobin. Excess accumulation of bilirubin causes yellowish discoloration of the
sclerae, mucosae, & internal organs. Such a yellowish discoloration is called
jaundice.
JAUNDICE is most often caused by

1. Hemolytic anemia
Hemolytic anemia is characterized by increased destruction of red blood cells.
2. Biliary obstruction
This is obstruction of intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts. It can be caused by
gallstones.
3. Hepatocellular disease
This is associated with the failure of conjugation of bilirubin.
IV. Reversible cellular changes & accumulations

2. The accumulations of pigments

C. Hemosiderin
Hemosiderin is an iron-containing pigment derived from ferritin. It appears in tissues
as golden brown amorphous aggregates & is identified by its staining reaction (blue
color) with the Prussian blue dye. Hemosiderin exists normally in small amounts
within tissue macrophages of the bone marrow, liver, & spleen as physiologic iron
stores. It accumulates in tissues in excess amounts in certain diseases.
IV. Reversible cellular changes & accumulations
2. The accumulations of pigments
C. Hemosiderin
This excess accumulation is divided into 2 types:
1. Hemosiderosis
When accumulation of hemosiderin is primarily within tissue
macrophages & is not associated with tissue damage, it is called
hemosiderosis.
2. Hemochromatosis
When there is a more extensive accumulation of hemosiderin, often
within
parenchymal cells, which leads to tissue damage, scarring & organ
dysfunction, it is called hemochromatosis.
 Reversible injury: Ischemia

▪ refers to a critical lack of blood supply to a

localized area.
▪ It is reversible in that tissues are restored
to normal function when oxygen is again
supplied to them, but if late progress to
ischemic infarction
▪ It usually occurs in the presence of
atherosclerosis in the major arteries.

The classic condition resulting from ischemia is

Angina pectoris.
Irreversible Cell injury: Infarction

▪ Is a localized area of tissue death due to lack of blood

supply.
▪ It is also called Ischemic Necrosis.
▪ It is due to occlusion of blood vessels by thrombus or
embolus. Septic Infarction is added when there is
evidence of infection in the area.
▪ It is irreversible cellular death due to lack of blood
supply, when ischemia is persistent or late.
Example:- Acute myocardial infarction (AMI)
CELL DEATH

Cells can die via one of the following two ways:

1. Apoptosis
“normal” or “programmed” cell death which
unwanted or useless cells are eliminated during
development and other normal biologic processes.

2. Necrosis
“accidental” or “pathological” cell death
Occurs when cells are exposed to a serious physical
or chemical insult (hypoxia, hyperthermia,
ischemia)
APOPTOSIS
Apoptosis is the death of single cells within clusters of other
cells. (Note that necrosis causes the death of clusters of
cells.)
In apoptosis, the cell shows shrinkage & increased acidophilic
staining of the cell.
This is followed by fragmentation of the cells. These
fragments are called apoptotic bodies.

Apoptosis usually occurs as a physiologic process for removal

of cells during embryogenesis, menstruation, etc
It can also be seen in pathological conditions caused by mild
injurious agents.

Apoptosis is not followed by inflammation or calcification.

The above-mentioned features distinguish apoptosis from

necrosis.
NECROSIS
In necrosis, excess fluid enters the cell, swells it, &
ruptures its membrane which kills it.
After the cell has died, intracellular degradative
reactions occur within a living organism.
Necrosis does not occur in dead organisms. In dead
organisms, autolysis & heterolysis take place.
Necrosis occurs by the following mechanisms:

A. Hypoxia
B. Free radical-induced cell injury
C. Cell membrane damage
D. Increased intracellular calcium level
A. Hypoxia - Hypoxia decreases oxygen supply to tissues

Hypoxia can be caused by:

1. Ischemia
Ischemia is decreased blood flow to or from an organ. Ischemia can be caused by
obstruction of arterial blood flow – the most common cause, or by decreased perfusion
of tissues by oxygen-carrying blood as occurs in cardiac failure, hypotension, & shock.

2. Anemia
Anemia is a reduction in the number of oxygen-carrying red blood cells.

3. Carbon monoxide poisoning

CO decreases the oxygen-capacity of red blood cells by chemical alteration of
hemoglobin.

4. Poor oxygenation of blood due to pulmonary disease.

The cell injury that results following hypoxia can be divided into early & late stages:
Early (reversible) stages of hypoxic cell injury

At this stage, hypoxia results in decreased oxidative phosphorylation & ATP

synthesis. Decreased ATP leads to:

a. Failure of the cell membrane Na – K pump, which leads to increased

intracellular Na & water, which cause cellular & organelle swelling. Cellular
swelling (hydropic change) is characterized by the presence of large vacuoles
in the cytoplasm. The endoplasmic reticulum also swells. The mitochondria
show a low amplitude swelling. All of the above changes are reversible if the
hypoxia is corrected.

b. Disaggregation of ribosomes & failure of protein synthesis.

Late (irreversible) stages of hypoxic cell injury.

This is caused by severe or prolonged injury. It is caused by massive calcium

influx & very low pH, which lead to activation of enzymes, which damage the
cell membrane& organelle membranes. Irreversible damage to the
mitochondria, cell membranes, & the nucleus mark the point of no return for
the cell, that is after this stage, the cell is destined to die.

Release of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine phosphokinase(CPK),

& lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) into the blood is an important indicator of
irreversible injury to heart muscle following myocardial infarction.
B. Free radical-induced injury

Free radical is any molecule with a single unpaired electron in the outer orbital.
Examples include superoxide & the hydroxyl radicals.

Free radicals are formed by normal metabolism, oxygen toxicity, ionizing radiation, &
drugs & chemicals, & reperfusion injury. They are degraded by spontaneous decay,
intracellular enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase, catalase, or superoxide
dismutase, & endogenous substances such as ceruloplasmin or transferrin.

When the production of free radicals exceeds their degradation, the excess free
radicals cause membrane pump damage, ATP depletion, & DNA damage. These can
cause cell injury & cell death.
C. Cell membrane damage

Direct cell membrane damage as in extremes of temperature, toxins, or

viruses, or indirect cell membrane damage as in the case of hypoxia can
lead to cell death by disrupting the homeostasis of the cell.
D. Increased intracellular calcium level

Increased intracellular calcium level is a common pathway via which

different causes of cell injury. For example, the cell membrane
damage leads to increased intracellular calcium level.

The increased cytosolic calcium, in turn, activates enzymes in the

presence of low pH. The activated enzymes will degrade the cellular
organelles.
Pathologic calcification
1. Metastatic calcification
This is caused by hypercalcemia, resulting from hyperparathyroidism, milk-alkali
syndrome, sarcoidosis etc.

2. Dystrophic calcification
This occurs in previously damaged tissue, such as areas of old trauma, tuberculous
lesions, scarred heart valves, & and atherosclerotic lesions.
Unlike metastatic calcification, it is not caused by hypercalcemia. Typically, the
serum calcium level is normal.
Types of necrosis

1. Coagulative necrosis
2. Liquefactive necrosis
3. Fat necrosis
4. Caseous necrosis
5. Gangrenous necrosis
1. Coagulative necrosis

Coagulative necrosis most often results from sudden interruption of blood supply
to an organ, especially to the heart. It is, in early stages, characterized by general
preservation of tissue architecture. It is marked by the following nuclear changes:

Pyknosis (which is chromatin clumping & shrinking with increased basophilia),

karyorrhexis (fragmentation of chromatin), & karyolysis (fading of the chromatin
material).
2. Liquefactive necrosis

Liquefactive necrosis is characterized by digestion of tissue. It

shows softening & liquefaction of tissue.
It characteristically results from ischemic injury to the CNS. It
also occurs in suppurative infections characterized by formation
of pus.
Example:- Wet gangrene
3. Fat necrosis
Fat necrosis can be caused by trauma to tissue with high fat
content, such as the breast or it can also be caused by acute
hemorrhagic pancreatitis in which pancreatic enzymes diffuse
into the inflamed pancreatic tissue & digest it. The fatty acids
released from the digestion form calcium salts (soap formation or
dystrophic calcification). Demonstrates fat necrosis of the pancreas.
Saponification has occurred and these appear grossly as the soft, chalky
white areas.

In addition, the elastase enzyme digests the blood vessels & cause
the hemorrhage inside the pancreas, hence the name hemorrhagic
pancreatitis.
4. Caseous necrosis

Caseous necrosis has a cheese-like (caseous, white) appearance to the

naked eye. And it appears as an amorphous eosinophilic material on
microscopic examination.

Caseous necrosis is typical of tuberculosis. characterized by central area

of necrosis which is soft, friable and surrounded by an area with a
cheesy, crumbly appearance.
5. Gangrenous necrosis
This is due to vascular occlusion & most often affects the lower
extremities & the bowel. It is called wet gangrene if it is complicated
by bacterial infection which leads to superimposed liquefactive
necrosis.

Whereas it is called dry gangrene if there is only coagulative necrosis

without liquefactive necrosis.
END.