1.

Fluid Mechanics
Introduction:
In this chapter, we will aim to understand macroscopic systems that flow or deform. We will
study the connection between density, pressure, and buoyancy (i.e. the “tendency to sink or
float”).
Fluids play a vital role in many aspects of everyday life.
 We drink them, breathe them, swim in them.
 They circulate through our bodies and control
our weather.
 Airplanes fly through them; ships float in them.
 A fluid is any substance that can flow; we use the term for both liquids and
gases. A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and
held together by weak cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a
container.
Note: all objects are deformable. That is, it is possible to change the shape or the size (or both) of
an object by applying external forces. As these changes take place, however, internal forces in the
object resist the deformation.
Density and Volume
In studying fluids and thermodynamics, we frequently require the parameter of a system’s volume. The SI unit for
volume is the cubic meter (m3). However, this is a very large quantity for most areas of research (although not for
marine science!) The most common metric unit for volume is the liter (L). There are 1000 liters in 1 m3. In many
fields (particularly medicine), the cubic centimeter (cm3) is used. Every object or system of objects has both a mass and a
volume. An important property of any material is its density, defined as its mass per unit volume . The ratio of these
parameters is the mass density
𝜌 = 𝑚 /𝑉

.
• Matter is normally classified as being in weak cohesive forces acting b/n them,
one of four states: solid, liquid, gas or resulting in the characteristic indefinite shape
plasma. and volume of a gas.
• Plasma: a highly ionized gas composed
• Solids: A phase of matter with molecules entirely of equal number of positive ions and
that remain close fixed to fixed equilibrium electrons. State matter in which atoms are
positions due to strong interactions b/n the separated in to electrons and positive ions or
molecules, resulting in the characteristic bare nuclei
definite shape and volume of a solid.
• Liquids: A phase of matter composed of
molecules that have interactions stronger than
those found in a gas but not strong enough to
keep the molecules near the equilibrium
position, resulting the characteristic definite
volume but indefinite shape of a liquid.
• Gases: A phase of matter composed of
molecules that are relatively far apart moving
freely in a constant ,random motion and have
• Pressure in a Fluid
• When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is at rest, it
exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in
contact with it, such as a container wall or a
body immersed in the fluid.
• At any point on the surface of a submerged
object, the force exerted by the fluid is
perpendicular to the surface of the object.
• The force exerted by the fluid on the walls of
the container is perpendicular to the walls at
all points.

If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A,
then
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure at the bottom of
this sea of air in which we live.
• This pressure varies with weather changes and with elevation.
• Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1 atmosphere (atm), defined to
be exactly 101,325 Pa.
• Causes of Pressure: There are two primary contributions to pressure.
• The first is gravitational – the fluid is pulled down toward the bottom of its
container, causing pressure on the bottom surface Since it can flow, the sides of
the container beneath the fluid’s surface experience pressure as well.
• The second contribution is thermal. collisions between the molecules and the
container walls exert tiny forces on the walls. The net force due to all of the
collisions results in a pressure. This force depends on the number of collisions
per unit time, which depends on the average speed of the molecules.
• we can see that the situation shown in the top
figure (figure.a) is not possible (the two
cylinders are open to the atmosphere).
If 𝑑1 > 𝑑2, then the pressure at the bottom of
the narrow cylinder would be greater than
that at the bottom of the wide cylinder, and
the liquid would flow until the levels
equalized.
• Altogether, we can say that a connected liquid
in hydrostatic equilibrium rises to the same
height in all open regions of the container.
• we can see that the situation shown figure(b)
the pressure is the same at all points on a
horizontal line through a connected liquid in
hydrostatic equilibrium.
 • Variation of Pressure with Depth
• Now consider a liquid of density ρ at rest as
shown in Figure below.
• We assume that ρ is uniform throughout the
liquid; this means that the liquid is
incompressible.
• Let us select a sample of the liquid contained
within an imaginary cylinder of cross-
sectional area A extending from depth d to
depth d + h.
• The liquid external to our sample exerts
forces at all points on the surface of the
sample, perpendicular to the surface.
• The pressure exerted by the liquid on the
bottom face of the sample is P, and the
pressure on the top face is Po.
• Therefore, the upward force exerted by the outside fluid on the bottom of the
cylinder has a magnitude PA, and the downward force exerted on the top has a
magnitude Po A.
• The mass of liquid in the cylinder is M = ρ V = ρ Ah; therefore, the weight of
the liquid in the cylinder is Mg = ρ Ahg.
• Because the cylinder is in equilibrium, the net force acting on it must be zero.
Choosing upward to be the positive y direction, we see that

• We call this ‘hydrostatic’ pressure, indicates the fluid is not moving

 Discussion:
Think of a weighted balloon submerged in water
How will the balloon change when pressure
goes up?

Did its weight change when pressure went up?

So when pressure goes up:

- will it float higher?
- or will it sink?
• In view of the fact that the pressure in a fluid depends on depth and on the value of ,
any increase in pressure at the surface must be transmitted to every other point in the
fluid. This concept was first recognized by the French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–
1662) and is called Pascal’s law: a change in the pressure applied to a fluid is
transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
• An important application of Pascal’s law is the hydraulic press/lift
• A force of magnitude F1 is applied to a small piston of surface area A1. The pressure
is transmitted through an incompressible liquid to a larger piston of surface area A2.
• Because the pressure must be the same on both sides, P = F1/A1 = F2/A2.
• Therefore, the force F2 is greater than the force F1 by a factor A2/A1.
• By designing a hydraulic press with appropriate areas A1 and A2, a large output force
can be applied by means of a small input force. Hydraulic brakes, car lifts, hydraulic
jacks, and forklifts all make use of this principle
• Because liquid is neither added nor
removed from the system, the volume of
liquid pushed down on the left in Figure
below.
• as the piston moves downward through a
displacement equals the volume of liquid
pushed up on the right as the right piston
moves upward through a displacement .
That is, ; thus, / = / . We have already
shown that A2/A1 = F2/F1 . Thus, F2/F1 =
/ , so F1 F2 .
• Each side of this equation is the work done
by the force. Thus, the work done by F1 on
the input piston equals the work done by F2
on the output piston, as it must in order to
conserve energy.
Reading assignment…. Pressure measurements

Gauge pressure
Absolute pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Manometres
barometers
• Most of these molecules feel these forces equaly. But Molecules at the edge can’t make as
many interactions (intract half of the others b/c they are at the edge no more molecules to one
side)
• Some liquides contract in order to minimize the surface area. We can see this in a Drop of
water which will be roughly spherical The spherical shape minimizes the surface area
spherical droplet maximize the hydrogen bond allowing the system to set lowest possible
energy
• But these force can be outweighed by other factors like gravity and air resistance for large
droplet, that is why not remaining spherical for long.
 • Adhesive Forces

• Interaction between a liquid and a solid surface

• If we place a drop of water on non polar surface(plastic), the water will not wet
the surface b/c the cohesive force(the hydrogen bond between polar molecules
inside the droplet) is greater than the adhesive force(the force between the water
and nonpolar surface)

• If you place a droplet on a glass or another polar surface, water will spread out
and wet the surface b/c in this case the adhesive force is stronger than cohesive
force.
 That is why the mercury
thermometer looks like this
• We can also see capillary action
occurring when we deep a narrow
glass tube in to water
• Water molecules are attracted by the
glass that is why water molecules rise
up.
• Adhesive force between glass and
water>gravity
• And more narrow the tube the higher
the water will climb
• As temperature increase surface
tension decreases
 • Capillary Action
• Liquid flows through a material because of attractions between the liquid and
the material

• Water climbs up the paper towel against gravity

• Adhesive force + cohesive force > gravity
 • Surface Tension

• paper clip can rest atop a water surface even though its density is several times
that of water. This is an example of surface tension:

• The surface of the liquid behaves like a membrane under tension.

• Depends on strength of cohesive force

• The Strong cohesive force The strong surface tension

• Surface tension arises because the molecules of the liquid exert attractive forces
on each other. There is zero net force on a molecule inside the volume of the
liquid, but a surface molecule is drawn into the volume. Thus the liquid tends to
• Surface tension explains why freely falling raindrops are spherical (not teardrop
shaped): A sphere has a smaller surface area for its volume than any other shape.
• Surface tension is important for a millimeter-sized water drop, which has a
relatively large surface area for its volume. (A sphere of radius r has surface area
and volume /3 The ratio of surface area to volume is 3/r which increases with
decreasing radius.)
• For large quantities of liquid, however, the ratio of surface area to volume is
relatively small, and surface tension is negligible compared to pressure forces.
• Water has an irregular high surface tension, this is because of strong hydrogen
bonds occurring
 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’s Principle
• The upward force exerted by a fluid on any immersed object is called a
buoyant force. the magnitude of the buoyant force always equals
theweight of the fluid displaced by the object. This statement is known as
Archimedes’s principle.

• Note: if several objects of different densities but the same volume are
immersed in a fluid, they will all experience the same buoyant force.
Whether they sink, float or suspend will be determined by the
relationship between the buoyant force and the weight.
Archimedes’ principle:
• Buoyant Force on an object immersed in a liquid equals
the weight of the liquid displaced and the weight of the
object if it floats.
• consider a cube immersed in a liquid. The pressure at the bottom of the
cube is greater than the pressure at the top by an amount gh, where h is the
height of the cube. The pressure at the bottom of the cube causes an upward
force equal to A, where A is the area of the bottom face. The pressure at the
top of the cube causes a downward force equal to A.
• The resultant of these two forces is the buoyant force Fb:

• gh)A=gV

• where V is the volume of the fluid displaced by the cube. Because

the product ρfluidV is equal to the mass of fluid displaced by the
object, we see that

• Fb=Mg ,where Mg is the weight of the fluid displaced by the cube.

• Archimedes supposedly was asked to determine whether a crown made for
the king consisted of pure gold. Legend has it that he solved this problem
by weighing the crown first in air and then in water, as shown in Figure
below. Suppose the scale read 7.84 N in air and 6.84 N in water. What
should Archimedes have told the king?
Case 1: Totally Submerged Object: When an object is totally submerged in a
fluid of density ρfluid, the magnitude of the upward buoyant force is B = ρfluid
gV = ρfluidgVobj. If the object has a mass M and density ρobj, its weight is equal
to Fg = Mg = ρobjgVobj, and the net force on it is B - Fg = (ρfluid - ρobj)gVobj.
Hence, if the density of the object is less than the density of the fluid, then the
downward gravitational force is less than the buoyant force, and the
unsupported object accelerates upward (Fig. a).
• If the density of the object is
greater than the density of the
fluid, then the upward buoyant
force is less than the downward
gravitational force, and the
unsupported object sinks (Fig.b). If
the density of the submerged
object equals the density of the
fluid, the net force on the object is
zero and it remains in equilibrium.
Thus, the direction of motion of an
object submerged in a fluid is
determined only by the densities of
the object and the fluid.
• Case 2: Floating Object: Now consider an object of volume Vobj and density ρobj < ρfluid

in static equilibrium floating on the surface of a fluid—that is, an object that is only

partially Submerged.

In this case, the upward buoyant force is balanced by the downward gravitational force

acting on the object.

• If Vfluid is the volume of the fluid displaced by the object (this volume is
the same as the volume of that part of the object that is beneath the
surface of the fluid), the buoyant force has a magnitude B = ρfluidgVfluid.
Because the weight of the object is Fg =Mg = ρ objgVobj, and because Fg
=B, we see that ρfluidgVfluid = ρ objgVobj, or

This equation tells us that the fraction of the volume of a floating object
that is below the fluid surface is equal to the ratio of the density of the
object to that of the fluid.
 Two beakers are filled to the brim with water. A wooden block is placed in
the beaker 2 so it floats. (Some of the water will overflow the beaker and run
off). Both beakers are then weighed. Which scale reads a larger weight and
why?

a b
The block in 2 displaces an amount of water equal
to its weight, because it is floating. That means
that the weight of the overflowed water is equal to
the weight of the block, and so the beaker in 2 has
c same for both
the same weight as that in 1.
 A block of wood floats in a container of water
Earth
as shown on the right. On the Moon, how
would the same block of wood float in the
container of water?

A floating object displaces a weight of water Moon

equal to the object’s weight. On the Moon,
the wooden block has less weight, but the
water itself also has less weight. The answer
is b. a b c
Buoyancy and Stability

• Buoyancy force FB is equal only

to the weight of displaced
volume ρfgVdisplaced.

• Three scenarios possible

1. ρbody< ρfluid: Floating body

2. ρbody= ρfluid: Neutrally buoyant

3. ρbody> ρfluid: Sinking body

• A solid block of steel sinks in water. A steel ship with
the same mass floats on the surface. How and why?
• Example
• A 15kg solid gold statue is raised from the sea bottom. What is the
tension in the hoisting cable (assumed massless) when the statue is
(a) at rest and completely underwater and (b) at rest and
completely out of the water?
• In both cases the statue is in equilibrium and experiences three
forces: its weight, the cable tension, and a buoyant force equal in
magnitude to the weight of the fluid displaced by the statue.
• Note that the buoyant force is proportional to the density of the fluid in
which the statue is immersed, not the density of the statue.

• The denser the fluid, the greater the buoyant force and the smaller the cable
tension.

• If the fluid had the same density as the statue, the buoyant force would be
equal to the statue’s weight and the tension would be zero (the cable would
go slack). If the fluid were denser than the statue, the tension would be
negative: The buoyant force would be greater than the statue’s weight, and
a downward force would be required to keep the statue from rising upward.
 • Fluid dynamics
• When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being one
of two main types. The flow is said to be steady, or laminar, if
each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, such that the
paths of different particles never cross each other.
• In steady flow, the velocity of fluid particles passing any point
remains constant in time.
• Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow becomes turbulent;
turbulent flow is irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-
like regions.
Fluid flow can be extremely complex. But some
situations can be represented by relatively simple
idealized models.
• An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible (that is,
its density cannot change) and has no internal
friction (called viscosity).
 Viscosity causes part of the kinetic energy of a fluid
to be converted to internal energy.
 • Factors affecting fluid flow
• A fluid is a state of matter in which its molecules move freely and do not bear a constant
relationship in space to other molecules.
• Flow is defend as the quantity of fluid that passes a point per unit time. flow(F)=
Factors
1. pressure: flow is directly proportional to the pressure difference across the tube, .
2.radius: flow is directly proportional to the fourth power of the radius of the tube, .
3.length: flow is inversely proportional to the length of the tube,
4. viscosity: flow is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid,
Hagen-Poiseuille equation
• This equation incorporates the variable that determines the flow
• Q=
• In our model of ideal fluid flow, we make the following four assumptions:

• 1. The fluid is nonviscous. In a nonviscous fluid, internal friction is

neglected. An object moving through the fluid experiences no viscous force.

• 2. The flow is steady. In steady (laminar) flow, the velocity of the fluid at
each point remains constant.

• 3. The fluid is incompressible. The density of an incompressible fluid is

constant.

• 4. The flow is irrotational. In irrotational flow, the fluid has no angular

momentum about any point.
 A particle in laminar flow follows a
streamline, and at each point along
its path the particle’s velocity is
tangent to the streamline
• Note that fluid particles cannot flow into or out of the sides of this tube; if they
could, then the streamlines would cross each other.
• Continuity equation

• Consider an ideal fluid flowing through a pipe of nonuniform size

• and

•
However, because the fluid is incompressible and because the flow is steady, the mass
that crosses in a time interval must equal the mass that crosses in the same time
interval.
That is, = or =
= The product is volume flux or the flow rate

This expression is called the equation of continuity for fluids. It states that
the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along a pipe is constant for an
incompressible fluid.
• Example

• Incompressible oil of density is pumped through a cylindrical pipe at a rate

of 9.5 liters per second. (a) The first section of the pipe has a diameter of 8
cm. What is the flow speed of the oil? What is the mass flow rate? (b) The
second section of the pipe has a diameter of 4 cm. What are the flow speed
and mass flow rate in that section?
 Bernoulli’s Equation
As a fluid moves through a region where its speed and/or elevation above the Earth’s surface
changes, the pressure in the fluid varies with these changes. The relationship between fluid
speed, pressure, and elevation was first derived in 1738 by the Swiss physicist Daniel
Bernoulli.
Consider the flow of a segment of an ideal fluid through a nonuniform pipe in a time interval t,
as illustrated below.
The work done by this force on segment 1 in a time interval t is

In a similar manner, the work done by the fluid to the right

of the segment in the same time interval t is

Thus, the net work done on the segment by these

forces in the time interval t is
• Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic energy of the segment of fluid,
and part goes into changing the gravitational potential energy of the segment–
Earth system.

• Because we are assuming streamline flow, the kinetic energy of the unshaded
portion of the segment is unchanged during the time interval.

• before the time interval we have portion 1 traveling at v1, whereas after the time
interval, we have portion 2 traveling at v2 . Thus, the change in the kinetic
energy of the segment of fluid is
 where m is the mass of both portion 1 and portion 2. (Because the volumes of
both portions are the same, they also have the same mass).
Considering the gravitational potential energy of the segment–Earth system,
once again there is no change during the time interval for the unshaded
portion of the fluid. The net change is that the mass of the fluid in portion 1
has effectively been moved to the location of portion 2. Consequently, the
change in gravitational potential energy is
• The total work done on the system by the fluid outside the segment is equal to
the change in mechanical energy of the system:

It states that the work done on a unit

volume of fluid by the surrounding fluid
is equal to the sum of the changes in
kinetic and potential energies per unit
volume that occur during the flow.
• This expression shows that the pressure of a fluid decreases as the speed of the
fluid increases. In addition, the pressure decreases as the elevation increases.
This explains why water pressure from faucets on the upper floors of a tall
building is weak unless measures are taken to provide higher pressure for these
upper floors.
• viscosity
• viscosity is internal friction in a fluid

• Fluids that flow readily, such as water or gasoline, have smaller viscosities
than do “thick” liquids such as honey or motor oil.

• Viscosities of all fluids are strongly temperature dependent, increasing for

gases and decreasing for liquids as the temperature increases.
A viscous fluid always tends to cling to a solid surface in contact with it.
There is always a thin boundary layer of fluid near the surface, in which
the fluid is nearly at rest with respect to the surface. That’s why dust
particles can cling to a fan blade even when it is rotating rapidly.
consider Fig. below which shows the flow-speed profile for laminar flow
of a viscous fluid in a long cylindrical pipe. Due to viscosity, the speed is
zero at the pipe walls (to which the fluid clings) and is greatest at the
center of the pipe. The motion is like a lot of concentric tubes sliding
relative to one another.
• with the central tube moving fastest and the outermost tube at rest, viscous forces
between the tubes oppose this sliding, so to keep the flow going we must apply a
greater pressure at the back of the flow than at the front. That’s why you have to keep
squeezing a tube of toothpaste or a packet of ketchup (both viscous fluids) to keep the
fluid coming out of its container. Your fingers provide a pressure at the back of the
flow that is far greater than the atmospheric pressure at the front of the flow.
The pressure difference required to sustain a given volume flow rate
through a cylindrical pipe of length L and radius R turns out to be
proportional to If we decrease R by one-half, the required pressure
increases by decreasing R by a factor of 0.90 (a 10% reduction)
increases the required
pressure difference by a factor of ( = 1.52 (a 52% increase). This simple
relationship explains the connection between a high-cholesterol diet (which
tends to narrow the arteries) and high blood pressure. Due to the dependence,
even a small narrowing of the arteries can result in substantially elevated
blood pressure and added strain on the heart muscle.
 • Turbulence

• When the speed of a flowing fluid exceeds a certain critical value, the flow is
no longer laminar. Instead, the flow pattern becomes extremely irregular and
complex, and it changes continuously with time; there is no steady-state
pattern. This irregular, chaotic flow is called turbulence.

• Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent depends in part on the fluid’s viscosity.

The greater the viscosity, the greater the tendency for the fluid to flow in
lamina and the more likely the flow is to be laminar. (When we discussed
Bernoulli’s equation, we assumed that the flow was laminar and that the fluid
had zero viscosity. In fact, a little viscosity is needed to ensure that the flow is
laminar.
• For a fluid of a given viscosity, pattern can be caused by
flow speed is a determining roughness in the pipe wall,
factor for the onset of variations in the density of the
turbulence. A flow pattern that fluid, and many other factors.
is stable at low speeds suddenly At low flow speeds, these
becomes unstable when a disturbances damp out; the flow
critical speed is reached. pattern is stable and tends to

• Irregularities in the flow maintain its laminar nature

(Fig. a). When the critical speed is
reached, however, the flow pattern
becomes unstable. The disturbances no
longer damp out but grow until they
destroy the entire laminar-flow
pattern (Fig. b)