NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System at a Glance

• Functions of Nervous System
– Coordinates and controls body function
– Receives sensory input
– Makes decisions
– Orders body responses
 Nervous System at a Glance
• Organs of Nervous System
– Brain
– Spinal cord
– Nerves
Nervous System Combining Forms

• cephal/o head
• cerebell/o cerebellum
• cerebr/o cerebrum
• encephal/o brain
• gli/o glue
• medull/o medulla
Nervous System Combining Forms

• mening/o meninges
• meningi/o meninges
• myel/o spinal cord
• neur/o nerve
• phas/o speech
• poli/o gray matter
Nervous System Combining Forms

• pont/o pons
• radicul/o nerve root
• thalam/o thalamus
• thec/o sheath (meninges)
• ventricul/o ventricle
 Nervous System Suffixes
• –algesia pain, sensitivity
• –esthesia feeling, sensation
• –paresis weakness
• –phasia speech
• –plegia paralysis
• –taxia muscle coordination
 Anatomy and Physiology
• Coordinates all activity of body
– Receives information from both external and
internal sensory receptors
– Uses that information to adjust activity of muscles
and glands to match needs of body
• Nervous system is divided into:
– Central nervous system (CNS)
– Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 Anatomy and Physiology
• Central nervous system consists of:
– Brain
– Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system consists of:
– Cranial nerves
– Spinal nerves
 Nervous Tissue
• Nervous system composed of two types of
cells
– Neurons
– Neuroglial cells
• Neurons
– Individual nerve cells
– Capable of conducting electrical impulses
 Nervous Tissue
• Neurons have three basic parts:
– Dendrites – highly branched projections that
receive impulses
– Nerve cell body – contains nucleus & organelles
– Axon – conducts electrical impulse to destination
– The structure of a neuron.
– Photomicrograph of typical neuron showing the nerve cell body, nucleus,
and dendrites.
 Nervous Tissue
• Synapse
– Point where axon of one neuron meets dendrite of
second neuron
• Synaptic cleft
– Gap between two neurons in a synapse
– Electrical impulse cannot cross
• Neurotransmitter
– Chemical released by axon
– Crosses gap to stimulate dendrite of second neuron
 Nervous Tissue
• Neuroglial cells
– Variety of cells found in nervous tissue
– Each has different support function for neurons
– Some neuroglial cells produce myelin, a fatty
substance that acts as insulation for many axons
– Neuroglial cells do not conduct electrical impulses
 Central Nervous System
• Combination of the brain and spinal cord
• Function
– Receives impulses from all over body
– Processes this information
– Responds with action
• Bundles of nerve fibers interconnecting
different parts of CNS are called tracts
 Central Nervous System
• Consists of both gray and white matter
• Gray matter
– Comprised of unsheathed or uncovered cell bodies
and dendrites
• White matter
– Myelinated nerve fibers
 The Brain
• One of the largest organs in body
• Coordinates most body activities
• It is center for:
– Thoughts
– Memory
– Judgment
– Emotion
 The Brain

• Four sections:
– Cerebrum
– Cerebellum
– Diencephalon
– Brain stem
– The regions of the brain.
 Cerebrum
• Largest section
• Upper portion
• Processes:
– Thoughts
– Judgment
– Memory
– Association skills
– Ability to discriminate
between items
 Cerebrum
• Cerebral cortex
– Outer layer of cerebrum
– Composed of folds of gray matter
• Gyri
– Elevated portions of the cerebrum, or
convolutions
• Sulci
– Fissures, or valleys, between gyri
 Lobes of Cerebrum
• Subdivided into left and right halves called
cerebral hemispheres
• Each hemisphere has four lobes:
– Frontal lobe
– Parietal lobe
– Occipital lobe
– Temporal lobe
 Lobes of Cerebrum
• Frontal lobe
– Most anterior lobe
– Controls motor
function, personality,
and speech
• Parietal lobe
– Most superior portion
– Receives & interprets
nerve impulses
– Interprets language
 Lobes of Cerebrum

• Occipital lobe
– Most posterior
– Controls vision
• Temporal lobe
– Left and right lateral
portion
– Controls hearing
and smell
– The functional regions of the cerebrum.
 Diencephalon

• Located below
cerebrum
• Contains two of
most critical areas
of brain:
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
 Diencephalon
• Thalamus
– Center for relaying impulses from eyes, ears, and
skin to cerebrum
– Controls perception of pain
• Hypothalamus
– Controls body temperature, appetite, sleep, sexual
desire, and emotions
– Controls autonomic nervous system, cardiovascular
system, gastrointestinal system, and release of
hormones from pituitary gland
 Cerebellum
• Second largest portion of brain
• Located beneath posterior part of cerebrum
• Aids in:
– Coordinating voluntary body movements
– Maintaining balance and equilibrium
• Refines muscular movements initiated in
cerebrum
 Brain Stem
• Has three components:
– Midbrain
– Pons
– Medulla oblongata
 Brain Stem
• Midbrain
– Acts as pathway for impulses between brain and
spinal cord
• Pons
– Means bridge
– Connects cerebellum to rest of brain
• Medulla oblongata
– Most inferior portion of brain
– Connects brain to spinal cord
 Brain Ventricles
• Cavities containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Watery, clear fluid
– Provides shock protection for CNS
• Locations:
– One in each cerebral hemisphere
– One in thalamus
– One in front of cerebellum
Brain Ventricles
cerebral hemisphere
 Spinal Cord
• Extends from medulla
oblongata to second
lumbar vertebra
• Within vertebral column
– 33 vertebrae of back
bone
– Line up to form
continuous canal
– Called spinal cavity or
vertebral canal
vertebral canal
– The levels of the spinal cord and spinal nerves.
 Spinal Cord
• Protected by cerebrospinal fluid
– Flows through central canal down through spinal
cord
• Outer portion of spinal cord is myelinated
white matter
– Ascending tracts carry sensory information up to
brain
– Descending tracts carry motor commands down
from brain to peripheral nerve
 Meninges

• Protective
membrane sac
• Encases entire CNS
• Consists of three
layers:
– Dura mater
– Arachnoid layer
– Pia mater
– The meninges.
 Meninges
• Dura mater
– Means tough mother
– Outermost, tough,
fibrous sac around CNS
• Subdural space
– Empty space between
dura mater and
arachnoid layer
 Meninges
• Arachnoid layer
– Means spider-like
– Thin, delicate layer
attached to pia mater
by web-like filaments
• Subarachnoid space
– Between arachnoid
layer and pia mater
– Contains cerebrospinal
fluid
 Meninges
• Pia mater
– Means soft mother
– Innermost membrane
layer
– Applied directly to
surface of brain
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Consists of:
– 12 pairs of cranial nerves
– 31 pairs of spinal nerves
• Cranial nerves
– Arise from brain
• Spinal nerves
– Split off from spinal cord
– One pair (left and right) exit between each pair of
vertebrae
 Nerves
• A nerve:
– Is a bundle of axon fibers located outside CNS
– Carries messages between CNS and various parts
of body
• Nerve root
– Point where nerve is attached to CNS
• Names of most nerves reflect:
– Organ the nerve serves
– Portion of body the nerve is traveling through
 Table 12.1 Cranial Nerves

I Olfactory sense of smell

II Optic sense of sight

II Oculomotor controls eye muscles and pupil of eye

IV Trochlear controls oblique muscles of eye

facial sensation and controls muscles

V Trigeminal for chewing
controls eyeball muscles to turn eye to
VI Abducens side
 Table 12.1 Cranial Nerves
controls facial muscles for
VII Facial expression, salivation, and taste on
two-thirds of tongue (anterior)
VIII Vestibulocochlear sense of equilibrium and hearing
sensation from pharynx and taste on
IX Glossopharyngeal one-third of tongue
supplies most organs in abdominal
X Vagus and thoracic cavities

XI Accessory controls neck and shoulder muscles

XII Hypoglossal controls tongue muscles

 Neurons
• Each nerve can carry information both to and
from CNS
• But any individual neuron can carry
information in only one direction
• Either an:
– Afferent neuron
– Efferent neuron
 Neurons
• Afferent neurons
– Also called sensory neurons
– Carry sensory information from sensory receptor
to CNS
• Efferent neurons
– Also called motor neurons
– Carry activity instructions from CNS to muscles or
glands
 Divisions of PNS
• Nerves of PNS are subdivided into two
divisions
– Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
– Somatic nerves
• Each division serves different area of body
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Control of involuntary or unconscious bodily
functions
• It may increase or decrease the activity of:
– Smooth muscle found in viscera and blood vessels
– Cardiac muscle of heart
– Glands
• ANS divided into 2 branches:
– Sympathetic branch
– Parasympathetic branch
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Sympathetic branch
– Stimulates body in times of stress and crisis
– Increases heart rate, dilates airways, increases
blood pressure, inhibits digestion, and stimulates
production of adrenaline
• Parasympathetic branch
– Serves as counterbalance for sympathetic nerves
– Causes heart rate to slow down, lowers blood
pressure, and stimulates digestion
 Somatic Nerves
• Mainly involved with conscious and voluntary
activities of body
• Serve skin and skeletal muscles
– Carry information from sensory receptors of skin
• Such as touch, temperature, pressure, and pain
– Carry motor commands to skeletal muscles
Word Building with cephal/o, cerebell/o and cerebr/o

–algia cephalalgia head pain

–ar cerebellar pertaining to cerebellum

–itis cerebellitis inflammation of cerebellum

–al cerebral pertaining to cerebrum

spin/o pertaining to cerebrum and
cerebrospinal
–al spine
 Word Building with encephal/o, meningi/o and
mening/o

electr/o record of brain

electroencephalogram
–gram electricity
–itis encephalitis brain inflammation

–oma meningioma meninges tumor

–eal meningeal pertaining to meninges

–itis meningitis meninges inflammation
 Word Building with neur/o
–al neural pertaining to nerve
–algia neuralgia nerve pain
–ectomy neurectomy removal of nerve
–ologist neurologist nerve specialist
–oma neuroma nerve tumor
 Word Building with neur/o
–pathy neuropathy nerve disease
–plasty neuroplasty surgical repair of nerve
poly– inflammation of many
polyneuritis
–itis nerves
–rrhaphy neurorrhaphy suture a nerve
 Word Building with myel/o and pont/o

–gram myelogram spinal cord record

–itis myelitis inflammation of spinal cord

–ine pontine pertaining to pons

Word Building with radicul/o, thalam/o and thec/o

–itis radiculitis nerve root inflammation

–pathy radiculopathy nerve root disease

–ic thalamic pertaining to thalamus

pertaining to inside
intra– –al intrathecal
meninges
 Nervous System Vocabulary
the use of anesthesia for surgical
anesthesiology procedures, resuscitation, and pain
management
diagnosis and treatment of diseases of
neurology
nervous system
treating nervous system disease by
neurosurgery
surgical means
 Nervous System Vocabulary
sensations occurring prior to epileptic
aura
seizure or migraine; such as seeing colors
alternating between strong involuntary
convulsion
muscle contractions and relaxations
sudden, uncontrollable onset of symptoms;
seizure
such as in epileptic seizure
focal
seizure in only one limb or body part
seizure
syncope fainting
 Nervous System Vocabulary
conscious awake and aware of surroundings
unaware of surroundings; unable to
unconscious
respond to stimuli
coma state of profound unconsciousness
abnormal sensations such as burning or
paresthesia
tingling
involuntary repetitive alternating
tremor
movements
 Nervous System Vocabulary
delirium confusion, disorientation, and agitation
dementia impaired intellectual function
hemiparesis weakness on one side of body
temporary or permanent loss of voluntary
paralysis
movement
hemiplegia paralysis on one side of body
paraplegia paralysis of lower portion of body
palsy loss of ability to control movements
 Brain Pathology
disorder characterized by progressive
Alzheimer’s
dementia, disorientation, apathy, and loss
disease
of memory
malignant tumor originating in astrocytes,
astrocytoma
a neuroglial cell
intracranial mass; may be malignant or
brain tumor benign; dangerous because occupies
space
cerebral ballooning of cerebral artery; may cause
aneurysm stroke
 Brain Pathology
infarct due to loss of blood supply to
cerebrovascular brain; may be due to hemorrhage,
accident (CVA) thrombus, embolus, or compression;
commonly called a stroke
transient ischemic temporary interference with blood
attack (TIA) supply to brain; may lead to a CVA
specific type of headache with
migraine severe pain, light sensitivity,
dizziness, and nausea
 Spinal Cord Pathology
congenital defect where lamina of
spina bifida vertebra do not meet or close to
form spinal canal
protrusion of meninges sac through
meningocele
opening left by spina bifida defect
protrusion of meninges and spinal
myelomeningocele cord through opening left by spina
bifida defect
– Spina bifida.
 Nerve Pathology
one-sided facial paralysis due to
Bell’s palsy inflammation of facial nerve caused by
virus
temporary loss of myelin sheath; may be
Guillain-Barré
autoimmune; starts in legs and
syndrome
progresses up nervous system
multiple loss of myelin sheath; results in
sclerosis (MS) weakness and numbness
 Meninges Pathology
epidural
mass of blood in space outside dura mater
hematoma
mass of blood forming inside subdural
subdural
space; due to torn meningeal blood
hematoma
vessel; space occupying lesion
– A subdural hematoma.
 Clinical Laboratory Tests
cerebrospinal examination of CSF; may detect
fluid analysis infections and blood in the fluid
Nervous System Pharmacology
treats minor to moderate Tylenol,
analgesic
pain, non-narcotic Aleve
produces loss of sensation Xylocaine,
anesthetic
or consciousness Novocain
reduces nerve excitability to Tegretol,
anticonvulsant
prevent seizures Nembutal
dopaminergic L-dopa,
treats Parkinson’s disease
drugs Sinemet
Nervous System Pharmacology

hypnotic promotes sleep Seconal, Restoril

narcotic OxyContin,
treats severe pain
analgesic Demerol
calming or relaxing
sedative Amytal, Butisol
effect