SEMINAR

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND DIGITAL

PRINCIPLES
QUESTION PAPER -2019

PART -A
 1. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND
APPLICATION SOFTWARE?

System software
• System Software maintain the system resources
• And gives the path for application software to run.
• Low level languages are used to write the system software
• It is a general-purpose software.
• Without system software, the stop system can’t run
• System software runs when the system is turned on
• and stop when the system is turned off.
• Example: System software is operating system etc. System Software programming is
complex than application software.
 APPLICATION SOFTWARE

• Application software is built for specific tasks.

• While high level languages are used to write the application software.
• While it’s a specific purpose software.
• While without application software system always runs.
• While application software runs as per the user’s request.
• Example: Application software are Photoshop, VLC player etc.
• Application software programming is simpler as comparison to system software.
2. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY SUBMARINING?

If you move the mouse pointer too quickly, it seem to disappear. This effect
is called submarining.
3. EXPLAIN NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system (OS) that’s

designed primarily to support workstations, PCs and, in some instances, older
terminals that are connected on a local area network (LAN)
 4. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN VIDEO CONFERENCING, AUDIO
CONFERENCING, AND DATA CONFERENCING

Video conferencing:
video conferencing enables a real-time communication over a distance by allowing people at
two or more sites to communicate with each other by seeing a video picture of people at other
sites.
Audio conferencing:
Audio conferencing provides an audio link similar to that of a conventional telephone.
It offers much higher quality audio and enables more than two sites to be linked together.
Data conferencing:
Data conferencing enables participants at two or more sites to have a shared
5. DIFFRENTIATE BETWEEN POSITIONAL AND NON-POSITIONAL NUMBER
SYSTEM?

• Positional Number System

A positional (numeral) system is a system for representation of numbers by an
ordered set of numerals symbols (called digits) in which the value of a numeral symbol depends
on its position. For each position a unique symbol or a limited set of symbols is used. The value of
a symbol is given by the weight of its position expressed in the bases (or radices) of the system.
The resultant value of each symbol is given by the value assigned to its position (e.g. by a product
of bases) and modified (e.g. multiplied) by the value of the symbol. The total value of the
represented number in a positional number is then sum of the values assigned to the symbols of
all positions
NON POSITIONAL NUMBER SYSTEM

• In this number system each symbol represent the same value regardless of
each position in a number.
• To find the value of a number ,we want to count the number of symbols
present in the number
• Eg: I,II,III,IV,V...etc..
 6. WHAT ARE BCD NUMBERS?

• BCD or Binary Coded Decimal is that number system or code which has the binary numbers or
digits to represent a decimal number.
• A decimal number contains 10 digits (0-9). Now the equivalent binary numbers can be found out
of these 10 decimal numbers. In case of BCD the binary number formed by four binary digits, will
be the equivalent code for the given decimal digits. In BCD we can use the binary number from
0000-1001 only, which are the decimal equivalent from 0-9 respectively. Suppose if a number
have single decimal digit then it’s equivalent Binary Coded Decimal will be the respective four
binary digits of that decimal number and if the number contains two decimal digits then it’s
equivalent BCD will be the respective eight binary of the given decimal number. Four for the first
decimal digit and next four for the second decimal digit.
 7. EXPLAIN HOW NOR GATE ACT AS AND GATE?

Three NOR gate used as an AND gate

 8. DEFINE DE- MORGAN’S THEOREM

De Morgan has suggested two theorems which are extremely useful in Boolean Algebra. The two theorems
are discussed below.
Theorem 1

• The left hand side (LHS) of this theorem represents a NAND gate with inputs A and B, whereas the right
hand side (RHS) of the theorem represents an OR gate with inverted inputs.
• This OR gate is called as Bubbled OR.
THEOREM 2

•The LHS of this theorem represents a NOR gate with inputs A and B, whereas the RHS
represents an AND gate with inverted inputs.
•This AND gate is called as Bubbled AND.
9. WHY PARITY CHECKER IS NEEDED?

• One of the advantages of using digital system, is it’s capability of detecting and correction
errors. The XOR gate is the most suitable circuit to provide parity checker.
10. WHAT IS THE NEED OF A HALF ADDER?

• It is a type of digital circuit that performs the operation of additions of two number. It is
mainly designed for the addition of binary number, but they can be used in various other
applications like binary code decimal, address decoding, table index calculation, etc.

• With the help of half adder, one can design a circuit that is capable of performing simple
addition with the help of logic gates
11. WHAT IS DEMULTIPLEXER?

Demultiplexer is used to connect a single source to multiple destinations. The main

application area of demultiplexer is communication system where multiplexer are used. Most
of the communication system are bidirectional i.e. they function in both ways (transmitting
and receiving signals). Hence, for most of the applications, the multiplexer and demultiplexer
work in sync. Demultiplexer are also used for reconstruction of parallel data and ALU circuits.
 12. WHAT IS T-FLIP FLOP ?

The T flip-flop is a single-input version of the JK flip-flop. As shown in Fig. 6-7(a), the T flip-flop is
obtained from the JK flip-flop when both inputs are tied together. The designation T comes from
the ability of the flip-flop to “toggle,” or complement, its state. Regardless of the present state, the
flip-flop complements its output when the clock pulse occurs while input 7 is 1. The characteristic
table and characteristic equation show that when T=0 Q(t+1)=Q that is, the next state is the same
as the present state and no change occurs. When T=1 , then Q(t+1)=Q^{\prime} and the state of
the flip-flop is complemented.
THANK YOU
SECTION B
 SECTION-B
13. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPUTERS FOR ORGANIZATIONS?

ANS: COMPUTERS FOR ORGANIZATION

SOME COMPUTERS HANDLE THE NEEDS OF MANY USERS AT THE SAME TIME. THESE
POWERFUL SYSTEMS ARE MOST OFTEN USED BY ORGANIZATIONS, SUCH AS BUSINESSES OR
SCHOOLS, AND ARE COMMONLY FOUND AT THE HEART OF THE ORGANIZATION’S NETWORK
NETWORK SERVERS
TODAY, MOST ORGANIZATIONS’ NETWORKS ARE BASED ON PERSONAL COMPUTERS.
INDIVIDUAL USERS HAVE THEIR OWN DESKTOP COMPUTERS, WHICH ARE CONNECTED TO
ONE OR MORE CENTRALIZED COMPUTERS, CALLED NETWORK SERVERS. A NETWORK
SERVER IS USUALLY A POWERFUL PERSONAL COMPUTER WITH SPECIAL SOFTWARE AND
EQUIPMENT THAT ENABLE IT TO FUNCTION AS THE PRIMARY COMPUTER IN THE NETWORK
PC-BASED NETWORKS AND SERVERS OFFER COMPANIES GREAT DEAL OF FLEXIBILITY. FOR
EXAMPLE, LARGE ORGANIZATIONS MAY HAVE DOZENS OR HUNDREDS OF INDIVIDUAL
SERVERS WORKING TOGETHER AT THE HEART OF THEIR NETWORK.
•
MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
•MAINFRAME COMPUTERS ARE USED IN LARGE
ORGANIZATIONS SUCH AS INSURANCE COMPANIES AND
BANKS, WHERE MANY PEOPLE FREQUENTLY NEED TO
USE THE SAME DATA. IN A TRADITIONAL MAINFRAME
ENVIRONMENT, EACH USER ACCESSES THE
MAINFRAME’S RESOURCES THROUGH A DEVICE CALLED
A TERMINAL. THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF TERMINALS. A
DUMB TERMINAL DOES NOT PROCESSOR STORE DATA; IT
IS SIMPLY AN INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O ) DEVICE THAT
FUNCTIONS AS A WINDOW INTO A COMPUTER LOCATED
SOMEWHERE ELSE. AN INTELLIGENT TERMINAL CAN
PERFORM SOME PROCESSING OPERATIONS, BUT IT
USUALLY DOES NOT HAVE ANY STORAGE. IN SOME
MAINFRAME ENVIRONMENTS, HOWEVER, WORKERS
CAN USE A STANDARD PERSONAL COMPUTER TO
ACCESS THE MAINFRAME.MAINFRAMES ARE LARGE,
POWERFUL SYSTEMS. THE LARGEST MAINFRAMES CAN
HANDLE THE PROCESSING NEEDS OF THOUSANDS OF
USERS AT ANY GIVEN MOMENT. BUT WHAT THESE
SYSTEMS OFFER IN POWER, THEY LACK IN FLEXIBILITY
•MINI COMPUTERS

FIRST RELEASED IN THE 1960S, MINICOMPUTERS GOT THEIR NAME BECAUSE OF THEIR
SMALL SIZE COMPARED TO OTHER COMPUTERS OF THE DAY. THE CAPABILITIES OF A
MINICOMPUTER ARE SOMEWHERE BETWEEN THOSE OF MAINFRAMES AND PERSONAL
COMPUTERS. FOR THIS REASON, MINICOMPUTERS ARE OFTEN CALLED MIDRANGE
COMPUTERS. LIKE MAINFRAMES, MINICOMPUTERS CAN HANDLE MUCH MORE INPUT
AND OUTPUT THAN PERSONAL COMPUTERS CAN. ALTHOUGH SOME ‘‘MINIS’’ ARC
DESIGNED FOR A SINGLE USER, THE MOST POWERFUL MINICOMPUTERS CAN SERVE THE
INPUT AND OUTPUT NEEDS OF HUNDREDS OF USERS AT A TIME. USERS CAN ACCESS A
CENTRAL MINICOMPUTER THROUGH A TERMINAL OR A STANDARD PC.

•SUPER COMPUTERS
SUPERCOMPUTERS ARC THE MOST POWERFUL COMPUTERS MADE, AND PHYSICALLY
THEY ARE SOME OF THE LARGEST. THESE SYSTEMS CAN PROCESS HUGE AMOUNTS OF
DATA, AND THE FASTEST SUPER COMPUTERS CAN PERFORM MORE THAN ONE TRILLION
CALCULATIONS PER SECOND. SOME SUPERCOMPUTERS CAN HOUSE THOUSANDS OF
PROCESSORS. SUPERCOMPUTERS ARE IDEAL FOR HANDLING LARGE AND HIGHLY
COMPLEX PROBLEMS THAT REQUIRE EXTREME CALCULATING POWER. FOR EXAMPLE,
SUPERCOMPUTERS HAVE LONG BEEN USED IN THE MAPPING OF THE HUMAN GENOME,
FORECASTING WEATHER, AND MODELING COMPLEX PROCESSES LIKE NUCLEAR FISSION
 • 14. WHAT IS INTERNET. EXPLAIN THE HISTORY OF INTERNET?

•ANS:INTERNET
• 1. INTERNET IS A NETWORK OF NETWORKS.
• 2. IT IS A GLOBAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM THAT LINKS TOGETHER
THOUSAND OF INDIVIDUAL NETWORKS.
• 3. INTERNET SHARES A COMMON MECHANISM FOR
ADDRESSING(IDENTIFYING)COMPUTERS AND A COMMON SET OF
PROTOCOLS FOR COMMUNICATION BETWEEN 2 COMPUTERS ON THE
NETWORK

TODAY, THE INTERNET CONNECTS THOUSANDS OF NETWORKS AND

HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS OF USERS AROUND THE WORLD. IT IS A
HUGE, COOPERATIVE COMMUNITY WITH NO CENTRAL OWNERSHIP.
THIS LACK OF OWNERSHIP IS AN IMPORTANT FEATURE OF THE
INTERNET, BECAUSE IT MEANS THAT NO SINGLE PERSON OR GROUP
CONTROLS THE NETWORK.
THE INTERNET IS OPEN TO ANYONE WHO CAN ACCESS IT. IF YOU CAN
USE A COMPUTER AND IF THE COMPUTER IS CONNECTED TO THE
INTERNET, YOU ARE FREE NOT ONLY TO USE THE RESOURCES POSTED
BY OTHERS, BUT TO CREATE RESOURCES OF YOUR OWN ; THAT IS, YOU
CAN PUBLISH DOCUMENTS ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB, EXCHANGE
EMAIL MESSAGES, AND PERFORM MANY OTHER TASKS.
•15. WHICH ARE THE MAIN SERVICES OF INTERNET?

•ANS:INTERNET HAS BECOME VERY POPULAR AND IT HAS TOUCHED EVERY ASPECT OF OUR LIFE. IT
HAS CHANGED THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION AND ENTERTAINMENT. THE USES OR
ADVANTAGES OF INTERNET ARE EXPLAINED BELOW.
•1. GETTING INFORMATION
INTERNET PROVIDES A LARGE VOLUME OF INFORMATION. ANY KIND OF INFORMATION ON ANY
TOPIC UNDER THE SUN IS AVAILABLE ON THE INTERNET, THE SEARCH ENGINES' ON THE INTERNET
CAN HELP YOU TO FIND DATA ON ANY SUBJECT THAT YOU NEED.
•2. COMMUNICATION
THE FOREMOST USE OF INTERNET IS THE COMMUNICATION FACILITY THAT IT OFFERS. USING
INTERNET, INDIVIDUALS CAN COMMUNICATE DIRECTLY IN CHAT ROOMS, USE VIDEO
CONFERENCING FACILITY, E-MAIL, INTERNET TELEPHONY, ETC.
•3. ENTERTAINMENT
INTERNET PROVIDES A HOST OF ENTERTAINMENT FACILITIES. DOWNLOADING GAMES, LISTENING
TO ONLINE MUSIC, DOWNLOADING MUSIC AND MOVIES, VISITING CHAT ROOMS, ETC. ARE SOME OF
THE ENTERTAINMENTS OFFERED BY THE INTERNET
•4. SEARCHING FOR PRODUCTS
SEARCHING FOR PRODUCTS AND COMPARING THE FEATURES OF DIFFERENT BRANDS IS EASY IN
INTERNET. YOU CAN GET INFORMATION ABOUT THE VARIOUS PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF A
COMPANY AND CAN BUY THEM TOO.
•5. E-commerce
Internet has eliminated the need for standing in long queue for paying telephone bill or getting railway ticket. These
can be done online from your home or office. Now almost all banks are offering net banking facility. You can carry
out any bank transactions online, thus saving lot of time and energy
•6. Finding People
The social networking services offered by internet helps you to trace your friends from anywhere in the world.
•7. Services
Many services are now provided on the internet such as online job search, online ticket reservation, online
examination, e-tuition etc.
•8. Medicine
Internet is much useful in the field of medicine. For example, with the help of internet, a doctor sitting in Germany
can instruct other doctors to perform a surgery on a patient in Mumbai. Similarly, a hospital can check the
availability of a particular blood group in the various blood banks of the country
•9. Education
Now students can attend the classroom sessions of any foreign institution online, Students can take online
examination and results will be available online. Thus, internet provides the facility for online education.
•10. E-mail
E mail is the most popular and valuable service on the part of internet. Using e-mail, you can
send and receive instant electronic messages, which work like writing letters. Your messages
are delivered instantly to people anywhere in the world.
•11. Downloading Software
This is one of the most beneficial things to do via the internet. You can download innumerable,
games, music, videos, movies, and a host of other entertainment software from the internet,
most of which are free.
•12. Online Chat
There are many chat rooms' on the web that can be accessed to meet new people, make new
friends, as well as to stay in touch with old friends.
16. Add : (a) 1101 and 0111 (b) 1011 and 1101 ( c) 110110 and 110011

•(a) 1101+0111
1101
+0 1 1 1
1000
•(b) 1011+1101
1011
+1 1 0 1
10000
•(c)110110+110011
​ 110110
+1 1 0 0 1 1
​ 1 101001

​
•17. BRIEFLY EXPLAIN ABOUT 1’S COMPLEMENT AND 2’S COMPLEMENT SUBTRACTION
CONCEPTS WITH EXAMPLE

•ANS: SUBTRACTION BY 1’S COMPLEMENT

IN SUBTRACTION BY 1’S COMPLEMENT WE SUBTRACT TWO BINARY NUMBERS USING
CARRIED BY 1’S COMPLEMENT.
THE STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED IN SUBTRACTION BY 1’S COMPLEMENT ARE:
• I) TO WRITE DOWN 1’S COMPLEMENT OF THE SUBTRAHEND.
• II) TO ADD THIS WITH THE MINUEND.
• III) IF THE RESULT OF ADDITION HAS A CARRY OVER THEN IT IS DROPPED AND AN
1 IS ADDED IN THE LAST BIT.
• IV) IF THERE IS NO CARRY OVER, THEN 1’S COMPLEMENT OF THE RESULT OF
ADDITION IS OBTAINED TO GET THE FINAL RESULT AND IT IS NEGATIVE
•(I) 110101 – 100101
•SOLUTION:
1’S COMPLEMENT OF 10011 IS 011010. HENCE
MINUED - 110101
1’S COMPLEMENT OF SUBTRAHEND - 011010
CARRY OVER - 1 001111
______1
10000
THE REQUIRED DIFFERENCE IS 10000
•
( II) 101011 – 111001
•SOLUTION:
1’S COMPLEMENT OF 111001 IS 000110. HENCE
MINUED - 101011
1’S COMPLEMENT - 0 0 0 1 1 0
110001
HENCE THE DIFFERENCE IS = 1 1 1 0

SUBTRACTION BY 2’S COMPLEMENT

WITH THE HELP OF SUBTRACTION BY 2’S COMPLEMENT METHOD WE CAN EASILY
SUBTRACT TWO BINARY NUMBERS.

THE OPERATION IS CARRIED OUT BY MEANS OF THE FOLLOWING STEPS:

•(I) AT FIRST, 2’S COMPLEMENT OF THE SUBTRAHEND IS FOUND.
•(II) THEN IT IS ADDED TO THE MINUEND.
•(III) IF THE FINAL CARRY OVER OF THE SUM IS 1, IT IS DROPPED AND THE RESULT IS
POSITIVE.
•(IV) IF THERE IS NO CARRY OVER, THE TWO’S COMPLEMENT OF THE SUM WILL BE THE
RESULT AND IT IS NEGATIVE.
(iii)1010.11 – 1001.01
Solution:

2’s complement of 1001.01 is 0110.11. Hence

Minued - 1010.11
2’s complement of subtrahend - 0110.11
Carry over 10001.10

After dropping the carry over we get the result of subtraction as 1.10
 NOT gate

18. Explain logic gates?

•Ans:Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed
by using logic gates. The basic gates are
the AND, OR, NOT gates. The basic
operations are described below with the
aid of tables in the following, called truth The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces
tables. an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also
known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the
inverted output is known as NOT A.
AND GATE

•The AND gate is an electronic circuit

that gives a high output (1) only if all its
inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show
the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in
mind that this dot is sometimes omitted
i.e. AB
OR gate

•The OR gate is an electronic circuit

that gives a high output (1) if one or
more of its inputs are high. A plus (+)
is used to show the OR operation
NAND GATES
NAND gate is a universal gate.NAND means NOT AND.

NOR GATES
It is also called Universal gate. The NOR gate is a digital logic gate that implements
logical NOR.(OR+NOT)
 20. Discuss the truth table of
encoder

•Ans: Encoder
•An Encoder is a combinational circuit
that performs the reverse operation of
Decoder. It has maximum of 2n input
lines and „n‟ output lines. It will produce
a binary code equivalent to the input,
which is active High. Therefore, the
encoder encodes 2n input lines with „n‟
bits. It is optional to represent the enable
signal in encoders.

•4 to 2 Encoder
Let 4 to 2 Encoder has four inputs Y3,
Y2, Y1 & Y0 and two outputs A1 & A0.
The block diagram of 4 to 2 Encoder is At any time, only one of these 4 inputs can be „1‟ in order
shown in the following figure.
to get the respective binary code at the output. The Truth
table of 4 to 2 encoder is shown below.
From Truth table, we can
write the Boolean functions
for each output as
A1=Y3+Y2A1=Y3+Y2
A0=Y3+Y1A0=Y3+Y1
•Octal to Binary Encoder
Octal to binary Encoder has eight
inputs, Y7 to Y0 and three outputs A2,
A1 & A0. Octal to binary encoder is
nothing but 8 to 3 encoder. The block
diagram of octal to binary Encoder is At any time, only one of these eight inputs can be
shown in the following figure „1‟ in order to get the respective binary code. The
Truth table of octal to binary encoder is shown
below
•From Truth table, we can write the
Boolean functions for each output as
•A2=Y7+Y6+Y5+Y4A2=
Y7+Y6+Y5+Y4
•A1=Y7+Y6+Y3+Y2A1= Y7+Y6+Y3+Y2
•A0=Y7+Y5+Y3+Y1A0=
Y7+Y5+Y3+Y1
We can implement the above Boolean
functions by using four input OR gates.
The circuit diagram of octal to binary
encoder is shown in the following figure
•Decimal Encoder
Suppose we have to design an encoder which
will encode 10 characters (from 0 to 9). The
encoded form of each character would be 4 bit
binary equivalent. Then the encoder will have 10
numbers of input lines and each for one
character. There will be four output lines to
represent 4 bit encoded form of each input
character

In encoder normally, the input of which encoding

to be done, is made high, other all inputs remain
low at that time. That means a digital encoder
works on active high input
To understand about a digital encoder let us
design the above decimal to binary encodes. The
truth table for 10 inputs 4 output encoder would
be
From truth table it is
found, that output A
would be high at D8,
D9. So, it can be written
Section-c
22. Explain the various input devices.
Ans: Input Devices
The Keyboard
 The keyboard was one of the first peripherals to be used with computers
 It is still the primary input device for entering text and numbers.
 A standard keyboard includes about 100 keys; each key sends a different signal to the CPU.
 The skill of typing, or keyboarding, is the ability to enter text and numbers with skill and accuracy

The Standard Keyboard Layout

Keyboards come in many styles. The various models differ in size, shape, and feel. Most keyboards are laid out
almost identically. Among IBM-compatible computers, the most common keyboard layout is the IBM Enhanced
Keyboard. It has about 100 keys arranged in five groups.

The Alphanumeric Keys

The alphanumeric keys - the area of the keyboard that looks like a typewriter's keys are arranged the same way on
almost every keyboard. Sometimes this common arrangement is called the QWERTY (pronounced KWER-tee)
layout because the first six keys on the top row of letters are Q, W, E, R, T, Y. Along with the letters and numbers
keys, the alphanumeric key group includes four keys having specific functions
KEYBOARD
The Modifier Keys
The SHIFT, The ALT (Alternate), and The CTRL (Control) keys are called modifier keys because they modify the
input of other keys. In other words, if you hold down a modifier key while pressing another key, then you are
changing the second keys input in some way. For example, if you press the J key, you input a small letter. But if you
hold down the shift key while pressing the J key

The Numeric Keypad

 The numeric keypad is usually located on the right side of the keyboard.
 It looks like a calculator's keypad, with its 10digits and mathematical operators (+, -, *, and /).
 It also features a NUMLOCK key, which forces the numeric keys to input numbers. When NUM LOCK is
deactivated, the numeric keypad's keys perform cursor movement control and other functions.

The Function Keys

 The function keys, which are labeled F l, F2, etc are usually arranged in a row along the top of the keyboard.
 They allow you to input commands without typing long strings of characters or navigating menus or dialog
boxes.
 Each function key's purpose depends on the program you are using.
 For example, in most programs, F l is the help key. When you press it, a special window appears to display
information about the program you are using.
 Most IBM-compatible keyboards have 12 function keys.
Working of keyboard
MOUSE
The Mouse
 Full-size PCs usually include a mouse as the pointing device.
 A mouse is an input device that you can move around on a flat surface (usually on a desk or keyboard tray) and
controls the pointer.
 The pointer (also called the mouse pointer) is an on-screen object, usually an arrow, that is used to select text;
access menus; and interact with programs, files, or data that appear on the screen
.
The mechanical mouse is the most common type of pointing device. It contains a small rubber ball that protrudes
through a hole in the bottom of the mouse’s case. The ball rolls inside the case when you move the mouse around on
a flat surface
Another popular type of mouse, the optical mouse, is non mechanical. This type of mouse emits a beam of light
from its underside; it uses the light's reflection to judge the distance, direction, and speed of its travel
.
Advantages:
 It lets you position the cursor anywhere on the screen quickly without using the cursor-movement keys. You
simply move the pointer to the on screen position you want and press the mouse button; the cursor appears at that
location.
 Instead of forcing you to type or issue commands from the keyboard, the mouse and mouse-based operating
systems let you choose commands from easy-to-use menus and dialog boxes.
 If you use a drawing program, you can use the mouse to create graphics such as lines, curves, and freehand
shapes on the screen. The mouse has helped establish the computer as a versatile tool for graphic designers.
Everything you do with a mouse is accomplished by combining pointing with these techniques:
≫ Clicking
≫ Double-clicking
≫ Dragging
≫ Right-clicking

Clicking
To click an item with the mouse, you move the pointer to the item on the screen. When the pointer touches the object,
quickly press and release the primary mouse button once. Clicking or single- clicking, as it is also called—is the most
important mouse action. To select any object on the screen, such as a menu, command, or button, you click it.

Double-clicking
Double-clicking an item means pointing to the item with the mouse pointer and then pressing and releasing the mouse
button twice in rapid succession. Double-clicking is primarily used with desktop objects such as icons. For example, you
can double-click a program's icon to launch the program.

Dragging
Dragging an item means positioning the mouse pointer over the item, pressing the primary mouse button, and holding it
down as you move the mouse. As you move the pointer, the item is “dragged” along with it across the screen. You can then
drop the item in a new position on the screen. These techniques are also called drag-and-drop editing, or just drag and
drop.
Dragging is a very handy tool. In a word processing program, for example, you can drag text from one location to another
in a document.
Right clicking
 Windows and many Windows programs support right clicking, which means pointing to an item on the screen,
then pressing and releasing the right mouse button.
 It usually opens a shortcut menu that contains commands and options that pertain to the item to which you are
pointing

Optical Input Devices

Bar Code Readers
Bar code readers are one of the most widely used input devices.
The most common type of bar code reader is the flatbed model, which is commonly found in super markets and
department stores.
Working:
These devices read bar codes, which are patterns of printed bars that appear on product packages. The bar codes
identify the product. The bar code reader emits a beam of light—frequently a laser beam—that is reflected by the bar
code image. A light-sensitive detector identifies the bar code image by recognizing special bars at both ends of the
image.
These special bars are different, so the reader can tell whether the bar code has been read right-side up or upside
down. After the detector has identified the bar code, it converts the individual bar patterns into numeric digits—code
the computer can understand. The reader then feeds the data into the computer, as though the number had been typed
on a keyboard.
Image Scanners and Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
The bar code reader is a special type of image scanner

 Image scanners (also called scanners) convert any printed image into electronic form by shining light onto the
image and sensing the intensity of the light’s reflection at every point.
 Color scanners use filters to separate the components of color into the primary additive colors (red, green, and
blue) at each point. Red, green, and blue are known as primary additive colors because they can be combined to
create any other color. Processes that describe color in this manner are said to use RGB color.
The image scanner is useful because it translates printed images into an electronic format that can be stored in a
computer’s memory. Then you can use software to organize or manipulate the electronic image.
For example, if you scan a photo, you can use a graphics program such as Adobe Photoshop to increase the contrast
or adjust the colors.

OCR
If you have scanned a text document, you might want to use optical character recognition (OCR)
software to translate the image into text that you can edit.
When a scanner first creates an image from a page, the image is stored in the computer’s memory as a bitmap.
 Flatbed scanners offer higher-quality reproduction than do handheld scanners and can scan
a page in a single pass. (Multiple scans are sometimes required for color images.)
To use a flatbed scanner, you place the printed image on a piece of glass similar to the way you
place a page on a photocopier. In some medium-sized scanners, you feed the sheet to be scanned
through the scanner, similar to the way you feed a page through a fax machine.
23. Explain with examples; Conversion-From octal to (a) binary (b) decimal (c) hexadecimal

Ans: Octal numbers: Octal numbers are the numbers which have base 8. It is represented as N 8. It uses the digits 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
and 7 to represent the numbers in this number system. For example:
•1128
•10088
•7898, etc.
Binary Numbers: Binary numbers have base 2 and are represented by two digits, i.e. 0 and 1. They are the combination of binary
digits, 0’s and 1’s. These numbers have wide application in the computer system to store data. For example:
•00112
•1111012
•1010102
Step 1: each octal digit convert to a three digit binary numbers.
Step 2:Combine all result in binary group into single binary number with base 2

Convert (4321)8=(?)2
Solution: Binary representation of each digit of 4321 is:
4 – 100
3 – 011
2 – 010
1 – 001
Therefore, (4321)8=(100011010001)2.
(b)Octal to Decimal
•Step 1: Since an octal number only uses digits from 0 to 7, we first arrange the octal number with the power of 8.
•Step 2: We evaluate all the power of 8 values such as 8 0 is 1, 81 is 8, etc., and write down the value of each octal number.
•Step 3: Once the value is obtained, we multiply each number.
•Step 4: Final step is to add the product of all the numbers to obtain the decimal number.

Let us look at an example, convert (140)8(140)8 into a decimal number.

Step 1: Write 140 with the power of 8. Start from the right-hand side.
1 × 8 2 + 4 × 81 + 0 × 80
Step 2: Evaluate the power of 8 values for each octal number.
82 = 64, 81 = 8, 80 = 1
Step 3: Multiply each of the power of 8 numbers with the respective numbers.
1 × 64 + 4 × 8 + 0 × 1 = 64 + 32 + 0
Step 4: Add the values to obtain the decimal number.
64 + 32 + 0 = 96.
Therefore, (140)=(96)10.
(c)Octal to Hexadecimal

Octal to Hexadecimal Formula

To convert any octal number to the hexadecimal system, we must first convert the octal number to binary, and then
the binary number to hexadecimal.
For example, (435)8 = ( ? )16
We have to convert the above number, 435, given in the octal system, into the hexadecimal number system. then we
have to convert its binary equivalent. The figure given below shows its binary equivalent, or the binary equivalent of
435.
_4_ _3_ _5_
100 011 101
According to the figure given above, we have 100 011 101 as the value, which is the binary equivalent of the octal
number 435. Now let's convert it into the hexadecimal system. Or we have to calculate: (100011010) 2 = ( ? )16
Before proceeding, we have to make 4-4 pairs of binary bits, and here we have a total of 9 digits; therefore, to make
4-4 pairs, we have to add 3 zeros before the number; after adding three zeros, we have 000100011101. Now make 4
pairs and convert each pair into its hexadecimal equivalent, as

0001 0001 1101

1 1 D the hexadecimal equivalent is 11D. Therefore, (435)8 = (11D)16
25. How can a R-S flip flop be constructed using NOR gate? Explain its working with truth table.
​
Ans:Flip Flops

Basics of Flip Flops

Flip Flops can be constructed from 2 NAND gates or 2 NOR gates.Each flip flop has 2 outputs Q and Q1 and 2 inputs set and reset
This circuit is an S-R latch. An S-R latch is also called a set-reset latch. An input on S sets the latch, making true and false. An
input on R resets the latch; becomes false and becomes true. The output of the circuit is stable in either state with the inputs
removed. We can remove the input that caused a particular output and the output will be unchanged. The state, and so the output,
will only change when the complementary input is applied. Such a circuit is said to be bistable because it has two stable states.
THANK

YOU By:
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Parvathy Kalyan
Nevin Babu
Nebin Reji