NUCLEAR MEDICINE

Prepared by:
Christopher A. Macaraeg, RRT, MPA
► Stable low mass number nuclides
-equal numbers of protons and neutrons
e.g. Carbon nucleus 12C has 6 protons and 6 neutrons
► Stable high mass number
-more neutrons than protons
e.g. Tungsten nucleus W has 74 protons and 110 neutrons
184
Stable Nuclei

-Atomic nuclei contain protons and neutrons

(nucleons)
-Nucleons are held together by strong force.
-Nucleon binding energy
-energy required to remove a nucleon from a
nucleus
-Mass Number (A) is the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons.

For each nuclide, A = Z + N

CHARACTERISTICS OF NUCLEAR
ARRANGEMENTS
Proton Number Atomic Mass Neutron Number

Isotope Same Different Different

Isobar Different Same Different

Isotone Different Different Same

Isomer Same Same Same

Unstable Nuclei

-Radionuclides

-Very heavy nuclei (Z > 82) tend to be unstable.

-Radioactive decay
-transformation of an unstable nuclide into more stable
form
-total energy, mass number, and electric charge are always
conserved
Energy Level of Atom

Ground state
-lowest energy state of a nucleus
Excited states
-very unstable
-have only a transient existence before
transforming into stable state
Metastable states
-unstable
-have relatively long lifetimes before
transforming into stable state
RADIOACTIVITY

-process by which unstable atoms adjust and undergo

changes (by emitting particles and energy) to
attain stability
RADIOACTIVITY

Transformation of a parent radionuclide into a daughter

radionuclide.

*Parent-original unstable nuclide

*Daughter-more stable product

Radioactive Decay Processes
Excessive Nuclear Mass
-Alpha Decay
-Fission
Excessive Neutrons
-Beta Minus Decay
Excessive Protons
-Beta Plus (Positron Decay)
-Electron Capture
Excessive Energy
-Isomeric Transition
Alpha Decay

Conditions: Z>82
A>150
-emission of an alpha particle consisting of 2
neutrons and 2 protons (nucleus of a helium
atom)
-common in atoms with a high atomic
number (Z>82)
Alpha Particles

-Energies: 4 and 7 MeV

-Track length: <0.1 mm in tissue
-lose their energy by ionizing atoms along
the track length
-pose little risk as an external radiation
source as they cannot penetrate through the
skin
-pose high risk if ingested, inhaled or,
injected
Nuclear Fission

► Heavy atoms
► breakdown of
unstable atom into
large fragments
► 2 or 3 neutrons and
heat are emitted
 Beta Minus Decay

Conditions: Too many neutrons

Too few protons
-A neutron will be converted into proton
-atomic number +1
-excess energy is released as an energetic electron,
called beta particle
-also results in the emission of an antineutrino
-mass number remains constant
*Antineutrino

► no rest mass or electric charge and undergoes

no interaction with matter
► Undetectable
► only carries away some of the energy release
in the decay process
Beta Plus Decay

Conditions: Too many protons

Too few neutrons
-also known as positron emission
-A proton is converted into a neutron.
-atomic number -1
-excess energy is emitted as a positively charged
electron called positron
-also results in the emission of a neutrino
-mass number remains the same
Positron
-Energetic positrons lose their energy by ionization and
excitation of orbital electrons.

-When the positron loses all of its kinetic energy, it

annihilates with an electron.

-The mass of the positron and electron are converted into

two 511-keV photons that are emitted in opposite directions.
 Electron Capture

Conditions: Too many protons

Too few neutrons
-A proton is converted into neutron by capturing
an atomic electron.
-A neutrino is emitted.
-atomic number -1
-mass number stays the same
-If the captured electron is from the K-shell, the
resultant K-shell vacancy is filled by an outer shell
electron.
-The excess energy is emitted either as
Characteristic x-ray or an Auger electron.
 Isomeric Transition

-occurs in atoms with excessive energy

-emission of gamma ray or internal conversion electron
-gamma ray
-electromagnetic radiation originating from the nucleus of an atom
-internal conversion electron
-emitted when excess energy is transferred to an orbital electron
-both parent and daughter nuclei have the same mass number and atomic number
-Isomeric states that have long lifetimes are called metastable. (longer than 10-9
second)
-energy is also emitted in the form of Auger electron and characteristic radiation
Unstable Nuclei
DECAY MODE Mass number Atomic Neutron Comments
number Number
Isomeric A Z N Emission of gamma
ray, Internal
Transition Conversion Electron,
Characteristic X-ray or
Auger Electron
Beta Minus A Z+1 N-1 Emits electrons
and antineutrinos
Beta Plus A Z-1 N+1 Emits positrons
and neutrinos
Electron A Z-1 N+1 Emits neutrinos,
Capture Characteristic
X-ray or Auger
Electron
Alpha Decay A-4 Z-2 N-2 Dominant decay
mode for Z > 82
► Which of the following is ideal for therapy applications
in Nuclear Medicine?
► Alpha particles c. Gamma ray
► Beta Particles d. X-ray
Identify the type of radioactive decay for each reaction.

224 220

a) Ra □ Rn +
88 86

232 232 13 13
b) Th □ Pa c. N □
C
90 91 7 6
This reaction is an example of .
210 206
84
Po → 82
Pb +

► A) alpha decay
► B) positron emission
► C) gamma emission
► D) beta emission
► E) electron capture
► Nuclei above the belt of stability can lower their
neutron-to-proton ratio by
A) gamma emission.
B) positron emission.
C) beta emission.
D) electron capture.
E) Any of the above processes will lower the
neutron-to-proton ratio
Units of Radioactivity

1. Curie – more widely-used system

-based on the disintegration rate of 1
gram of radium
-defined as 3.7x1010 disintegration per
second

2. Bequerel - SI unit of radioactivity

-equals to 1 disintegration per second
Conversion of Units

Conventional Unit
1 Curie (Ci)=3.7 disintegration per second

SI Unit
1 Bequerel (Bq)=1dps

Curies to Bequerels
1 Ci = 3.7x1010 dps = 37 GBq
1mCi = 3.7x107 dps = 37 MBq
1uCi = 3.7x104 dps = 37 KBq
Half-life
-time it takes for a given amount of substance to become reduced by half

1. Biological Half-life
-time consumed to clear half of a drug from a particular tissue or organ
-biologic clearance
2. Physical half-life
-average time taken for the activity of a radioactive source to fall to one
half of its original value
3. Effective Half-life
represents the sum of the biological and physical decay constants
If an assay of a vial containing 131I shows 50 mCi present on
May 2, approximately what will the assay show on May 18?
(a) 25 mCi
(b) 12.5 mCi
(c) 40 mCi
(d) 6 mCi
If the biological half-life of an isotope is 6 h and the
physical half-life is 12 h, what is the effective half-life?
(a) 6 h
(b) 12 h
(c) 2 h
(d) 4 h
► Activity at time t = original activity × decay factor.

► If a kit has 310 mCi of activity present at 8:00 a.m.,

what will the vial assay show in 4 h and 10 min if the
decay factor is 0.618?
► (a) 175 mCi
► (b) 192 mCi
► (c) 501 mCi
► (d) 155 mCi
► Activity at time t = original activity × decay factor.

► If a kit has 310 mCi of activity present at 8:00 a.m., what

will the vial assay show in 4 h and 10 min if the decay factor
is 0.618?
► (a) 175 mCi
► (b) 192 mCi
► (c) 501 mCi
► (d) 155 mCi
► At = Ao × DF (310 mCi) × (0.618) = 191.58
If a kit contains 140 mCi of 99mTc in 23 ml, how much volume
must be withdrawn to obtain a dose of 5 mCi?
(a) 0.8 ml
(b) 30 ml
(c) 1.2 ml
(d) 0.6 ml

Required volume = activity desired divided by the specific

concentration
Specific concentration = radioactivity divided by volume
► Specific concentration = radioactivity divided by
volume (140 mCi/23 ml or 6.1 mCi/ml)
► Required volume = activity desired divided by the
specific concentration
(5 mCi/6.1 mCi/ml = 0.8 ml)
Interaction of Photons with
Matter
► Compton Scattering
► dominant type of interaction in materials with lower
atomic numbers (human tissue)
► Photoelectric Absorption
► Dominant type of interaction in materials with higher
atomic numbers
► Coherent Scattering
► Pair Production
Interaction of Charged Particles
with Matter
1. Excitation

2. Ionization

3. Annihilation
Interaction of Charged Particles
with Matter
Charged Particles
► transfer a greater amount of energy in a
shorter distance and come to rest more
rapidly than photons
► can be stopped by matter with relative ease
because of the strong electrical force
between a charged particle and the atoms of
an absorber
Excitation

► alphas, betas, and positrons transfer

some of their kinetic energy to electrons
of an atom
► The energy bumps an electron from an
inner to an outer shell of the atom
Ionization

► Charged particles transfer enough energy to an

electron (generally one in an outer shell) to eject the
electron from the atom
► hole in the outer shell will be filled with an unbound
electron
► Ionization of an inner-shell electron
► Much lesser occurrence
► Outer-shell electron will drop into the inner shell
► Produces characteristics x-ray
Ion Pair

► positively charged atom and free

negatively charged electron
► result of ionization
Specific Ionization

► number of ion pairs created per unit

distance the radiation travels
► Particles with more charge (alpha
particles) have a higher specific ionization
than lighter particles (electrons).
Linear Energy Transfer

► amount of energy transferred in a given distance

by a particle moving through an absorber
► alpha particles – high LET radiation
► beta particles and photons – low LET radiation
Range

► distance traveled by radiation through the

absorber
Particles with Higher Range

► Lighter particles
► Particles with less charge (such as beta particles)
► Particles with greater energy
Annihilation

► After a positron has transferred

most of its kinetic energy by
ionization and excitation, it
combines with a free or loosely
bound negative electron
► mass of the two particles is
instantly converted to energy in
the form of two,oppositely
directed photons
Bremsstrahlung

► Braking radiation
► electrons or positrons may be
deflected by nuclei as they pass
through matter, which may be
attributed to the positive charge
of the atomic nuclei
► generates x-radiation known as
bremsstrahlung
 RADIATION DETECTION AND
MEASURING DEVICES
1. Photographic emulsion -film and badge
2. Thermoluminescence Dosimeter -uses Lithium fluoride and measures minimum dose of
(5 mrad)50 uGyt
3. Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeter
-uses aluminium oxide that measures as low as (1 mrad)10uGyt
4. Ionization Chamber
Gas-filled
Detectors 5. Proportional Counter
6. Geiger-Muller Counter
7. Scintillation Detector -used in detectors of gamma camera, CT, and Digital Radiography
Imaging systems
NaI:Tl- gamma camera
CsI:Tl- CT, image intensifier, and digital radiography
CdWO4- CT
Regions/Stages in a Gas-filled
Detector
1. Region of recombination
2. Ionization Region
3. Proportional Region
4. Geiger-Muller Region
5. Region of Continuous Discharge
Region of recombination

-voltage is very low

-no electrons are attracted in the central electrode
-ion pairs recombine
Ionization Region

► As the chamber voltage is increased, every electron

released by ionization is attracted to the central
electrode and collected.
Proportional Region

► Voltage is higher than the ionization region

► electrons are accelerated more rapidly to the central
electrode
► As electrons travel, they will cause further ionization on
their way to the central electrode.
Geiger-Muller Region

► voltage across the ionization chamber is sufficiently

high
► cascade of secondary electrons is produced in a chain
reaction
Region of Continuous Discharge

-If the voltage is increased further, a single ionization event

completely discharges the chamber.
-Because of the high voltage, electrons continue to be
stripped from the atoms of the gas, producing a continuous
current from the chamber.
-continued operation in this region results in damage
Types of Gas-Filled Detectors
► Ionization Chamber
► Applications:
► Dose calibrator
► Survey meter
► Pocket dosimeter
► Proportional Counter
► Application:
► Survey meter
► Geiger-Mueller Counter
► Application:
► Radiation Monitor
► Survey meter
Principle of Operation

► Radiation passes through the gas.

► Radiation ionizes atoms of the gas.

► Electrons are detected as an electrical

signal that is proportional to the radiation
intensity.
The ideal gas-filled detector consists of a cylinder
of gas and a central collecting electrode.

When a voltage is maintained between the central

electrode and the wall of the chamber, electrons
produced in ionization can be collected and
measured.
Ionization Chamber

► gas-filled (air) can with a

radiation permeable end
(the window), a central
wire, a meter, and a battery
► voltage is set relatively low
to ensure operation in the
ionization region
Ionization Chamber

Function:
► measure the average number of ionizations
per minute occurring within the gas
Applications:
► Dose calibrator
► Survey meter
► Pocket dosimeter
Dose Calibrator

► most frequently used in the

nuclear medicine department
► confirms that the correct amount
of activity has been dispensed
before a dose of
radiopharmaceutical is
administered
► Reports the amount of activity in
Ci or Bq
A technologist measures a standard of known activity in the
dose calibrator three times. She subtracts background from
each measurement and compares these measurements to
the decay-corrected activity of the standard. This was a
test of:
(a) Constancy
(b) Linearity
(c) Accuracy
(d) Geometric dependence
Example of a gas-filled detector

Dose calibrator
Survey Meter

► current reading is usually interpreted as the average

intensity of radiation in roentgens (R) per hour.
► Example:
► Registration of a 30 mR/hr exposure rate at 1 m from a
person who was treated with 370 MBq (10 mCi) of 131I
Pocket Dosimeter

► Contains a small, straight filament, insulated from the walls of the

chamber mounted within the ionization chamber
► used to measure exposures to photons in the range of zero to several
hundred milliroentgen
Proportional Counter

► Similar to ionization chamber

► argon or an argon–methane mixture
► higher voltage and the resulting gas amplification

► Applications:
► Survey Meter – distinguishes various types of radiation
(alpha particle or beta particle)
Geiger Counters
► ionization chamber that
operates at a relatively high
applied voltage
► filled with argon with traces
of other gases such as
halogen or methane
► cannot distinguish between
types of radiation because
each interaction of the
radiation with the gas causes
maximum ionization
Applications of Geiger Counters

As Radiation Monitor
► Monitors areas such as nuclear medicine laboratories
for radiation
► detects individual photons or their rate (mR/hr)

As survey meter
► detection of contamination
Tools for measuring personal exposure to radiation include
all of the following except:
(a) Thermoluminescent dosimeter
(b) Pocket ionization chamber
(c) Film badge
(d) Geiger-Muller counter
Which instrument should be used to determine the location
of a 99mTc spill?
(a) Geiger-Müller (GM) survey meter
(b) Portable ionization chamber
(c) NaI well counter
(d) Pocket dosimeter