Human Growth and

Development Theories
• Growth:
• Is physical change and increase in size.
• It can be measured quantitatively.
• Indicators of growth includes height, weight,
bone size, and dentition.
• Growth rates vary during different stages of
growth and development.
• The growth rate is rapid during the prenatal,
neonatal, infancy and adolescent stages and
slows during childhood.
• Physical growth is minimal during adulthood.
• Development:
• Is an increase in the complexity of function and
skill progression.
• It is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to
the environment.
• Development is the behavioral aspect of
growth.
3 Component of Personality
 THREE COMPONENT OF THE PERSONALITY:
• ID – pleasure principle
– source of instinctive and unconscious urges which
Freud considers chiefly sexual in nature.
- The Id is the source of all pleasure and
gratification.
- The id is very important early in life, because it
ensures that an infants needs are met.
- If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she
will cry until the demands of the id are met.
• EGO – reality principle
– formed by the person to make effective contact with
social and physical needs.
- It is the way by which the Id is satisfied.
- The ego functions in both the conscious, preconscious
, and unconscious mind.
- based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy
the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate
ways
- The ego acts as a middle ground between the id and
the superego, working to satisfy the urges that
originate in the id under the moral constraints
originating from the superego.
• SUPEREGO
- conscience of the personality or controlling factor
of the Id
- moral standards and ideals that we acquire from
both parents and society
- our sense of right and wrong
- The superego acts to perfect and civilize our
behavior
- begins to emerge at around age five
Examples of Id Ego and Superego
Id: Meeting Basic Needs
Sally was thirsty. Rather than waiting for the server
to refill her glass of water, she reached across
the table and drank from Mr. Smith's water
glass, much to his surprise.
Ego: Dealing With Reality
Sally was thirsty. However, she knew that her
server would be back soon to refill her water
glass, so she waited until then to get a drink,
even though she really just wanted to drink
from Mr. Smith's glass.
Superego: Adding Morals
Sarah knew she could steal the supplies from
work and no one would know about it.
However, she knew that stealing was wrong, so
she decided not to take anything even though
she would probably never get caught.
 Sigmund Freud believed that each stage of a
child’s development beginning at birth is directly
related to specific needs and demands, each
based on a particular body part and all rooted in a
sexual base.
 Freud believed that there are specific stages in
which an individual has a specific need, and
gratification during each stage is important to
prevent an individual from becoming fixated in
any particular level.
FREUD'S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
The Oral Stage: Birth to 18 Months
 an infant’s greatest source of gratification is
sucking
 infant’s oral focus brought not only nourishment,
but pleasure
Success:
 develops a sense of trust and comfort through
this oral stimulation
Fixation:
 dependency or aggression
 Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail biting.
The Anal Stage: 18 Months to Three Years
 The membranes of the anal region provide the
major source of pleasurable stimulation.
 derive much pleasure from the process of either
retaining or eliminating feces, and are quite
focused on the process.
 This is often the time frame in which many
parents choose to potty train their children.
 child can choose to either grant or resist parents'
wishes.
• Anal Fixation
Anal-Expulsive Personality: If the parents are too
lenient and fail to instill the society's rules about
bowel movement control, the child will derive
pleasure and success from the expulsion.
Individuals with a fixation on this mode of
gratification are excessively sloppy, disorganized,
reckless, careless, and defiant.
Anal-Retentive Personality: If a child receives
excessive pressure and punishment from parents
during toilet training, he will experience anxiety
over bowel movements and take pleasure in being
able to withhold such functions.
Individuals who fail to progress pass this stage are
obsessively clean and orderly, and intolerant of
those who aren't. They may also be very careful,
stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous,
conforming and passive-aggressive
The Phallic Stage: 3 Years to 6 Years
 children’s pleasure centres focused on their
genitals
 self-manipulation of the genitals as providing the
major source of pleasurable stimulation
 child's feeling of attraction toward the parent of
the opposite sex
"Oedipus Complex" Boys
"Electra Complex“ Girls
Phallic Fixation:
For men: Anxiety and guilty feelings about sex,
fear of castration, and narcissistic personality.

For women: It is implied that women never

progress past this stage fully and will always
maintain a sense of envy and inferiority
Latency Stage: 6 Years to Onset of Puberty
 In this stage, sexual motivations recede in
importance. At this stage a child is more
preoccupied with developing skills and other
activities.
 during these years, children focus their energies on
their schooling as well as forming friendship bonds
with other children of their own gender.
The Genital Stage: From Puberty On
 final stage of development
 It occurs after puberty and extends into
adulthood
 reawakening of sexual urges
 focus not only on their genitals, but also on
developing sexual relationships with members of
the opposite sex and on seeking sexual
satisfaction
 Psychosocial Stages
Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial
development has eight distinct stages. Like Freud,
Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage
of development. For Erikson (1963), these crises
are of a psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho)
conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).
• According to the theory, successful completion
of each stage results in a healthy personality
and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues
are characteristic strengths which the ego can
use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can
result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore a more unhealthy
personality and sense of self. These stages,
however, can be resolved successfully at a later
time.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust - Early infancy (birth- 1 1/2 yr)
Significant: Mother
Virtues: Hope, faith
(+) Shows affection, gratification, recognition
(-) sensory distortion & withdrawal
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.
By developing a sense of trust, the infant can
have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real
possibility that other people will be there are a
source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of
hope will lead to the development of fear.
For example, if the care has been harsh or
inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then
the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and
will not have confidence in the world around
them or in their abilities to influence events.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - Later infancy
(1 1/2–3 yrs)
Significant: Parents
Virtues: Will & determination
(+) Dependent upon parents but views self as
a person apart from parents
(-) Impulsivity & compulsion
For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a
supportive parent should have the patience to
allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for
assistance.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt - Early childhood (3 – 5 years)
Significant: Family
Virtues: Purpose & courage
(+) Shows imagination, imitate adults, tests reality,
anticipates roles.
 interacting with other children at school
initiate activities with others
(-) Ruthlessness & inhibition
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose. (the
courage to pursue goals without fearing punishment or
guilt)
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority - Middle
childhood (5 – 12 yrs)
Significant: Neighborhood & school
Virtues: Competence
(+) Has sense of duty, develops social
and scholastic competencies,
undertakes real tasks
(-) Narrow virtuosity & inertia
 Narrow Virtuosity: we see this in children who aren‟t
allowed to “be children” the ones that parents or
teachers push into one area of competence, without
allowing the development of broader interests.

 Inertia: this includes all of us who suffer from the “inferiority

complexes” Alfred Adler talked about.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion - Puberty and Adolescence
(12 – 18 years)
Significant: Peer groups & role models
Virtues: Fidelity & loyalty
(+) Is self-certain, sexual polarization, role
experiment, ideological commitment
(-) Fanaticism -believes that his way is the only
way.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation - young adulthood (ages 18
to 40 yrs)
 begin to share oneselves more intimately with
others.
 explore relationships leading toward longer term
commitments with someone other than a family
member.
 Successful completion of this stage can lead to
comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a
relationship.
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and

relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation - middle adulthood
(ages 40 to 65 yrs)
 Establish careers, settle down within a
relationship, begin own families and develop a
sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair - (65+ yrs)
It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity
if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
• Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as
unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that
we did not accomplish our life goals, we become
dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often
leading to depression and hopelessness.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back
on their life with a sense of closure and
completeness, and also accept death without fear.