Classification of Transducer:

A device that converts non-electrical energy into electrical energy for the purpose of measurement or transfer of information
is known as transducers.

Classification of Transducer:
1.Based on the physical phenomenon
(a) Primary transducer: When the input signal is directly sense by the transducer, the non-electrical energy is converted into
electrical energy directly
Ex:Thermistor: senses the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with the change in temperature.
(b) Secondary transducer: When the input signal is first sensed by some sensor or detector, then its output signal is feed to
the other instrument as an input. The output of this instrument is given as the input of transducer for converting into electrical
energy.
Ex: Bourdon tube to convert pressure into displacement, then the pressure is converter into output voltage with the help of
LVDT. Here the secondary transducer is LVDT
2. Based on the power type
Active transducer:Active transducer does not require any auxiliary power source to produce their output. It is also called self
generating type transducer.
Ex:Thermocouples:Thermocouples produce a voltage related to a temperature of two metals and if the two junctions are at
different temperatures, electricity is generated. piezoelectric accelerometers:

(b) Passive transducer:Passive transducers is also known as externally powered transducers. It derive the power required for
energy conversion from an external power source. Passive transducers produce a change in some passive electrical quantity, such
as capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as a result of stimulation
Ex: strain gauges, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors
 Classification of Transducer:

3. Based on the type of output

(a) Analog transducer
Requirements of a Good
(b) Digital transducer Transducers
4. Based on the electrical phenomenon (a) Smaller in size and weight.
(a) Resistive transducer
(b) Capacitive transducer (b) High sensitivity.
(c) Inductive transducer (c) Ability to withstand environmental
(d) Photoelectric transducer conditions.
(e) Photovoltaic transducer
5. Based on the non-electrical phenomenon
(d) Low cost.
(a) Linear displacement
(b) Rotary displacement
6.Based on the transduction phenomenon,
(a) Transducer
(b) Inverse transducer
 Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding signal with a different
energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus

Solenoids
solenoid-type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to actuate a
soft iron core, as, for example, the solenoid-operated hydraulic/ pneumatic valve
where a control current through a solenoid is used to actuate a
hydraulic/pneumatic flow;
 SOLENOIDS
1. A solenoid consists of a coil of electrical wire and a movable
iron core called the armature which is attracted to the coil
when a current passes through it.
2. When the coil is energized with current, it produces a
magnetic field. the core moves to increase the flux linkage
by closing the air gap between the cores.
3. The movable core is usually spring-loaded to allow the core to
retract when the current is switched off.
4. The force generated is approximately proportional to the
square of the current and inversely proportional to the
square of the width of the air gap.
6. The solenoids can be linear or rotary, on/off or variable positioning and
operated by d.c. or a.c. Such an arrangement can be used to provide
electrically operated actuators which are widely used for short stroke
devices, typically up to 25 mm
7. The form of the armature, the pole pieces and the central tube will
depend on the use for which the actuator is designed.
8. For a simple on/off device, there is no necessity for the design to give
a linear characteristic, Whereas a proportional actuator is required,
careful design is needed to give a movement of the armature
proportional to the solenoid current.
Linear solenoids with different forms of armature.
1. Disk armatures are useful where
small distances of travel and fast
action are required.
2. Plunger armatures are widely used
for applications requiring small
distances of travel and fast action.
3. Conical armatures are used for
long-stroke applications, a typical
application being for an automotive
door lock mechanism.
4. Ball armatures are used with fluid
control applications, a typical
application being an air bag
deployment mechanism. The basic forms of linear solenoids with (a) disk, (b) plunger, (c) conical plunger, (d) ball
forms of armature. Not shown in the figures are the springs required to return the
armature back to its original position when the current through the solenoid ceases.
 Applications
1. on/off solenoid actuator :It is used in a door lock with the lock either being actuated by the passage of a curren
through the solenoid or the reverse case when the passage of the current unlocks the door.
2. Solenoid valves used to control fluid flow in hydraulic or pneumatic systems. -When a current passes through a coil,
soft iron plunger form of armature is pulled into the coil and, in doing so, can open or close ports to allow the flow o
a fluid. The force exerted by the solenoid on the armature is a function of the current in the coil and the length o
the armature within the coil.
3. Solenoid actuators can be made to be latching, i.e. retain their actuated position when the solenoid current is
switched off.. A permanent magnet is added so that when there is no current through the solenoid it is not strong
enough to pull the armature against its retaining spring into the closed position. However, when there is a current
through the solenoid to give a magnetic field in the same direction as the permanent magnet then the armature is
pulled into the closed position. When the current through the solenoid is switched off, the permanent magnet is
strong enough to retain the armature in its closed position. To open it, the current through the solenoid has to be
reversed to give a magnetic field in the opposite direction to that of the permanent magnet. Such a solenoid actuator
can thus be used to switch on some device and leave it switched on until the reverse current signal is received.

⮚ Solenoids are inexpensive, and their use is limited primarily to on-off applications such as latching, locking, and
triggering. They are frequently used in home appliances (e.g., washing machine valves), automobiles (e.g., door
latches and the starter solenoid), pinball machines (e.g., plungers and bumpers), and factory automation.
⮚ With on/off valves, i.e. those used for directional control, the current in the coil is controlled to be either on or
off and the core is consequently in one of two positions. With proportional control valves, the current in the coil
is controlled to give a plunger movement which is proportional to the size of the current.
 Proximity sensors
1. Proximity sensors, used to determine the presence (as opposed to actual range) of nearby objects.Many industrial
installations that historically have used mechanical limit switches can now choose from a variety of alternative
noncontact devices for their close (between a fraction of an inch and a few inches) sensing needs.
2. They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another object. They usually provide a on or off signal
indicating the presence or absence of an object.
3. Proximity sensors are classified into several types in accordance with the specific properties used to initiate a
switching action:
• Inductive •Eddy current • Capacitive • Pneumatic • Ultrasonic • Microwave
• Optical • photoelectric, and hall effect
4. Proximity devices are valuable when detecting objects moving at high speed, when physical contact may cause
damage, or when differentiation between metallic and nonmetallic items is required.
5. Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used to determine when an object has moved to within some
particular critical distance of the sensor. they are essentially devices which give on/off outputs

Inductance proximity sensors

⮚ Inductance proximity sensors consist of a coil wound around a soft iron core.
⮚ When the end of the coil is close to a metal object its inductance changes. this
change can be monitored by its effect on a resonant circuit and the change
used to trigger a switch. it can only be used for the detection of metal objects
and is best with ferrous metals.
 Eddy current proximity sensors:

⮚ These eddy currents produce a secondary magnetic field that interacts

with field of the probe, thereby loading the probe oscillator.
⮚ The effective impedance of the probe coil changes,.
⮚ If a coil is supplied with an alternating current, an alternating magnetic
field is produced. Eddy current proximity sensors generate an oscillatory
RF field (i.e., 100 kHz to 1 MHz) around a coil of wire typically wound
around a ferrite core.
⮚ When a metallic object enters the defined field projecting from the
sensor face, eddy currents are induced in the target surface .
⮚ The eddy currents themselves produce a magnetic field. this distorts the
magnetic field responsible for their production.
⮚ As a result, the impedance of the coil changes and resulting in an
oscillator frequency shift (or amplitude change) that is converted into an
output signal proportional to the sensed gap between probe and target.
⮚ It is used for the detection of non-magnetic but conductive materials.
they have the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, small in size,
with high reliability, and can have high sensitivity to small displacements.
 capacitive proximity sensor
1. The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by C = εr εo A/d, where εr is
the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo is the permittivity
of free space, A is the area of overlap of the two plates, and d is the plate
separation.
2. one form of capacitive proximity sensor consists of a single capacitor plate inside a
probe, sealed in an insulator.
3. The external target object forms the other plate of the capacitor, and it must be
grounded to the proximity sensor ground
4. As the object approaches so the ‘plate separation’ of the capacitor changes, becoming
significant and detectable when the object is close to the probe.
5. Capacitance can be used to measure proximity or linear motions on the order of
millimeters.

6. As the sensor approaches the target, the capacitance increases, modifying the oscillation of a
detector circuit including the capacitor. This altered oscillation may be used to signal proximity or to
obtain a distance measurement
7. Used as proximity sensors, capacitive sensors can detect metallic or nonmetallic objects, liquids, or
any object with a dielectric constant greater than air..
 Pneumatic proximity sensors
1. Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed air, displacement or the proximity of an object
being transformed into a change in air pressure.
2. Low-pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front of the sensor.
3. This escaping air, in the absence of any close-by object, escapes and in doing so also reduces the
pressure in the nearby sensor output port.
4. However, if there is a close-by object, the air cannot so readily escape and the result is that the
pressure increases in the sensor output port.
5. The output pressure from the sensor thus depends on the proximity of objects. such sensors are
used for the measurement of displacements of fractions of millimetres in ranges which typically
are about 3 to 12 mm.
 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
All of the preceding proximity sensors relied on target presence to directly change some
electrical characteristic or property (i.e., inductance, capacitance) associated with the
sense circuitry itself.
The ultrasonic proximity sensor is an example of a reflective sensor that responds to
changes in the amount of emitted energy returned to a detector after interaction with
the target of interest.
Typical systems consist of two transducers (one to transmit and one to receive the
returned energy),
The transmitter emits a longitudinal wave in the ultrasonic region of the acoustical
spectrum (typically 20–200 kHz), above the normal limits of human hearing.
If an object enters the acoustical field, energy is reflected back to the receiver.
Maximum detection range is dependent not only on emitted power levels, but also on the
target cross-sectional area, reflectivity, and directivity.
Once the received signal amplitude reaches a preset threshold, the sensor output
changes state, indicating detection.
Ultrasonic proximity sensors are useful over distances out to several feet for detecting
most objects, liquid and solid.

The transducer of the sensor acts as a microphone to receive and send the ultrasonic sound.
Our ultrasonic sensors, like many others, use a single transducer to send a pulse and to
receive the echo. The sensor determines the distance to a target by measuring time lapses
between the sending and receiving of the ultrasonic pulse.
 Microwave Proximity Sensors

1. Microwave proximity sensors operate at distances of 5–150 ft or more (Williams, 1989) and are
very similar to the ultrasonic units except that electromagnetic energy in the microwave region of
the RF energy spectrum is emitted. (GHz range )for microwave field-disturbance sensors )
2. When the presence of a suitable target reflects sufficient energy from the transmitting antenna
back to a separate receiving antenna.
3. The output changes state to indicate an object is present within the field of view.
4. An alternative configuration employing a single transmit/receive antenna monitors the Doppler
shift induced by a moving target to detect relative motion as opposed to presence.
5. These sensors are usually larger than inductive and capacitive sensors, and they are best suited to
detect larger objects
Limit Switch
Mechanical switches consist of one or more pairs of contacts which can be
mechanically closed or opened and in doing so make or break electrical
circuits. Thus 0 or 1 signals can be transmitted by the act of opening or
closing a switch. The term limit switch is used when the switches are opened
or closed by the displacement of an object and used to indicate the limit of
its displacement before action has to be initiated
 Hall Effect sensors
⮚ The working principle was given by E. R. Hall in long back 1879.
⮚ The Hall principle is that, when a beam of charged particle passes through a magnetic field, forces
act on the particle and the beam is deflected from its straight line path.
⮚ A current flowing in a conductor is just like a beam of moving charges and thus can be deflected by
a magnetic field.

Working- Hall Sensors

⮚ consider electrons moving in a conductive plate with a magnetic field applied at right angles to the
plane of the plate
⮚ As a consequence of the magnetic field, the moving electrons are deflected to one side of the plate
and thus that side becomes negatively charged, while the opposite side becomes positively charged
since the electrons are directed away from it.
⮚ This charge separation produces an electric field in the material. the charge separation continues
until the forces on the charged particles from the electric field just balance the forces produced
by the magnetic field. the result is a transverse potential difference V given by

⮚ where B is the magnetic flux density at right angles to the plate, I the current through it, t the
plate thickness and Kh a constant called the Hall coefficient. Thus if a constant current source is
used with a particular sensor, the hall voltage is a measure of the magnetic flux density.
⮚ For a constant value of I actually, V is the measure of B. This is how we can measure B.
⮚ Hall effect sensors are generally supplied as an integrated circuit with the necessary signal processing circuitry.
⮚ There are two basic forms of such sensor:
linear, where the output varies in a reasonably linear manner with the magnetic flux density
threshold, where the output shows a sharp drop at a particular magnetic flux density .
 Applications-Hall Effect
1. To measure displacement position as well as the proximity if the object being sensed is
fitted with a small permanent magnet. A voltage is generated perpendicular to current
flow in a magnetic field. A Hall effect proximity sensor detects when a magnetic field
changes due to the presence of a metallic object.
2. Used in brushless DC motors -With such motors it is necessary to determine when the
permanent magnet rotor is correctly aligned with the winding in the stator. The current
through the winding can be switched on at right instant to maintain the direction of
rotation. For that purpose, the Hall Effect sensor is used to detect when the alignment is
right
3. Used for the fluid level detector -is there and there is a magnet over here
and this magnet is put on the float.. such a sensor can be used to determine the
level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank. There are ground terminal and supply .A
magnet is attached to a float and as the level of fuel changes so the float
distance from the hall sensor changes . As the magnet moves closure B changes
and so the 𝑉𝐻 changes and this 𝑉𝐻 can be measured. This is how this Hall Effect
sensor can be used for the fluid level detector
 LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT is the most used inductive transducer for converting
translating linear motion into electrical signal. This transducer converts a mechanical displacement
proportionally into electrical signal.
Construction:
LVDT is a transformer consisting of one primary winding P
and two secondary winding S1 & S2 mounted on a cylindrical
former. The two secondary winding have equal number of
turns and placed identically on either side of the primary
winding as shown in figure below.
A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. Actually
the movable core is made of nickel iron with hydrogen
annealed. Hydrogen annealing is done to eliminate harmonics,
residual voltage of core and thus provides high sensitivity.
The movable core also is laminated in order to reduce eddy
current loss. The assembly of laminated core is placed in a
cylindrical steel housing and end lids are provided for
electromagnetic and electrostatic shielding. The
displacement to be measured is attached to this movable
soft iron core.
 LVDT- Working Principle:
Since the primary winding of Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
is supplied with AC supply, it produces an alternating magnetic flux in the core
which in turn link with the secondary winding S 1 and S2 to produce emf due
to transformer action. The electrical equivalent circuit of LVDT is shown below.
Let us assume that the emf produced in secondary winding S 1 is Es1 and that in
S2 is Es2. The magnitude of Es1 and Es2 will depend upon the magnitude of rate of
change of flux (dØ / dt) as per the Faraday’s Law. The lower the value of ‘dt’,
the more will be the emf induced. But lower value of ‘dt’ means that core is
moving faster. Thus we can say that the faster the movement of core, the
greater will be the magnitude of emf induced in secondary windings.
To get a single output voltage from the Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT), both the secondary winding are connected in series but in
phase opposition as shown in figure
Due to this connection, the net output voltage E0 of the LVDT is given as below. E0 = Es1 – Es2
Since the secondary windings of LVDT are identical and placed symmetrically on either side of core,
therefore under normal position the flux linkage of both the secondary winding S1 & S2 will be same. This
means Es1 = Es2 and hence net output voltage E0 of LVDT = 0. This position of soft iron core is called
NULL position. Thus NULL position of Linear Variable Differential Transformer is the normal position of
movable core where the net output voltage is zero.
Now, as the core can either be moved toward right or left to the null position. Let us now consider such
movement of core under two cases
 Case-1: Core is moved left to the NULL position
When core of LVDT is moved to the left of the NULL position
‘O’ as shown in figure above, the flux linkage of secondary
winding S1 will become more than that of winding S2. This
means the emf induced in winding S1 will be more than S2.
Hence Es1 > Es2 and net output voltage E0 = (Es1 – Es2) =
Positive. This means that the output voltage E0 will be in phase
with the primary voltage.
Case-2: Core is moved right to the NULL position
When the core of LVDT is moved toward right of
NULL position ‘A’, you can guess what will happen?
Obviously the emf induced in secondary winding
S2 will be more than that of S1. This means Es2 >
Es1 and hence net output voltage E0 = (Es1 – Es2) =
negative. This means that the output voltage of LVDT
will be in phase opposition (180 degree out of phase)
with the primary voltage.
 conclusions
From the above two cases, we can have the following conclusions:
1) The direction of movement of a physical quantity can be identified by the output voltage of
LVDT. If the output voltage E is positive, this means the physical quantity is moving toward left.
0

2) If the output voltage E is negative, this will mean that the physical quantity is moving in the
0

right direction from the NULL position.

3) The amount / magnitude of displacement is proportional to the magnitude of output voltage.
The more the output voltage, the more will be displacement. But here is a clue. You can’t take
core out of the former; otherwise the output voltage will become zero.
4) In fact corresponding to both the cases i.e. whether core is moving left or right to the NULL
position, the output voltage will increase lineally up to a displacement of around 5 mm from the
NULL position. After 5mm, output voltage E becomes non-linear. The graph of variation of
0

E with displacement is shown below.

0

Carefully observe the above graph. It may be noted from the graph that even at NULL
position (i.e. when there is no displacement) there is some output voltage of LVDT. This
small output is due to the residual magnetism in the iron core.
Application:
LVDT is used in those applications where displacement ranging from fraction of a mm to
few cm. As a primary transducer, it converts the mechanical displacement into electrical
signal.
Acting as a secondary transducer, it is sued for measurement of force, pressure, weight
etc.
 Strain Gauge
IF a metal conductor is stretched or compressed , its resistance changes on account of the fact that
both length and diameter of conductor change.
There is change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property
is called piezo resistive effect. Resistance strain gauge also known as piezo resistive gauges.
Strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and associated stress
Strain gauges are used as secondary transducer in temperature sensors, flow meters, diaphragm type
pressure gauges.
When a gauge is subjected to positive strain, the length increases and C/S area decreases, hence
resistance of the conductor increases with positive strain as resistance is proportional to length and
inversely proportional to area. The change in the resistance of the gauge is more than what can be
accounted for an increase in resistance due to dimensional change. The additional change in resistance
is attributed to change in the value of resistivity of conductor when strained. This effect is piezo
resistive effect.
Let us consider a long straight metallic wire of length l circular cross section with
diameter d
When this wire is subjected to a force applied at the two ends, a strain will be generated and
as a result, the dimension will change (l changing to +l+ Δl , d changing to d+Δd and A changing
to A+ ΔA). For the time being, we are considering that all the changes are in positive
direction. Now the resistance of the wire:
Expression-Gauge factor
Expression-Gauge factor
 choice of material
⮚ The Gauge Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the
semiconductor type strain gauges have a very large Gauge Factor, in the range of 100-150.
This is attained due to dominant piezo-resistance property of semiconductors.
⮚ The commercially available strain gauges have certain fixed resistance values, such as,
120Ω, 350 Ω, 1000 Ω, etc. The manufacturer also specifies the Gauge Factor and the
maximum gauge current to avoid self heating (normally in the range 15 mA to 100 mA).
⮚ The choice of material for a metallic strain gage should depend on several factors. The
material should have low temperature coefficient of resistance. It should also have low
coefficient for thermal expansion.

Judging from all these factors, only few alloys qualify for a commercial metallic strain gauge.
They are:
▪ Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gauge Factor between 2.0 to 2.2
▪ Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Cr): Gauge Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
▪ Isoelastic -another trademarked alloy with Gauge Factor around 3.5 is also in use.
Semiconductor type strain gauges, though having large Gauge Factor, find limited use, because of
their high sensitivity and nonlinear characteristics.
 Metallic Strain Gauge

Most of the strain gages are metallic type.

They can be of two types:
unbonded type:The unbonded strain gage is
normally used for measuring strain (or displacement)
between a fixed and a moving structure by fixing four
metallic wires in such a way, so that two are in compression
and two are in tension
Bonded strain gage: the wire element is fixed on a
backing material, which is permanently fixed over a
structure, whose strain has to be measured, with adhesive.
The grid of wire is cemented to a carrier which may be
thin sheet of paper / bakelite sheet / teglon sheet; Wire
is covered on top with sheet of thin material so that wire
is not mechanically damaged. Spreading of wire permits a
uniform distribution of stress; carrier is bonded with
adhesive material to the structure under study.
 Backing and Bonding Materials
The backing material, over which the strain gage is fabricated and which is fixed with the strain measuring
structure has to satisfy several important properties.
it should have high mechanical strength;
it should also have high dielectric strength.
it should be non-hygroscopic, otherwise, absorption of moisture will cause bulging and generate local strain.
The backing materials normally used are impregnated paper, fibre glass, etc. The bonding material used for
fixing the strain gage permanently to the structure should also be non-hygroscopic. Epoxy and Cellulose are
the bonding materials normally used.
Metal foil type bonded Gauge
Most commonly used bonded strain gauges are metal foil type.
The metal foil type strain gauge is manufactured by photo-etching
technique.
Here the thin strips of the foil are the active elements of the strain
gauge, while the thick ones are for providing electrical connections.
Because of large area of the thick portion, their resistance is small and
they do not contribute to any change in resistance due to strain, but
increase the heat dissipation area.
Also it is easier to connect the lead wires with the strain gauge.
The strain gauge in fig. can measure strain in one direction only.
 Semiconductor type Strain Gauge
 Semiconductor type strain gauge is made of a thin wire of silicon, typically 0.005 inch to 0.0005 inch,
and length 0.05 inch to 0.5 inch.
 They can be of two types: p-type and n-type.
 In the former the resistance increases with positive strain, while, in the later the resistance
decreases with strain.
 Metallic strain gages: There is change in dimension and hence change in resistance when strained;
 In semiconductor strain gages: uses piezo resistive effect : change in resistance due to change in
resistivity
 The construction and the typical characteristics of a semiconductor strain gauge are shown in fig.
 Strain sensitive semiconductor material of thickness 0.5 mm is fabricated on a insulating substrate
Teflon ; Gold leads are used for making contact
Semiconductor strain Gauge
 Strain Gauge Bridge
⮚ Normal strain experienced by a strain gage is in the range of micro strain (typical value: 100 x 10-6).
As a result, the change in resistance associated with it is small (Δ R/R = Gε ). So if a single strain
gage is connected to a wheatstone bridge, with three fixed resistances, the bridge output voltage
is going to be linear (recall, that we say the bridge output voltage would be linearly varying with Δ
R/R , if Δ R/R does not exceed 0.1).
⮚ But still then, a single strain gage is normally never used in a wheatstone bridge. This is not because
of improving linearity, but for obtaining perfect temperature compensation.
⮚ Suppose one strain gage is connected to a bridge with three fixed arms. Due to temperature rise,
the strain gage resistance will change, thus making the bridge unbalance, thus giving an erroneous
signal, even if no strain is applied.
⮚ If two identical strain gages are fixed to the same structure, one measuring compressional strain
and the other tensile strain, and connected in the adjacent arms of the bridge, temperature
compensation can be achieved. If the temperature increases, both the strain gage resistances will
be affected in the same way, thus maintaining the bridge balance under no strain condition. One
more advantage of using the push-pull configuration is increasing the sensitivity.
⮚ In fact, all the four arms of the bridge can be formed by four active gages; this will improve the
sensitivity further, while retaining the temperature compensation property. A typical strain gauge
bridge is shown in fig. 9. It can be shown that if nominal resistances of the strain gauges are same
and also equal gauge factor G, then the unbalanced voltage is given be:
 strain gauge rosette
But if we want to measure the strain in two or more directions at the same
point, strain gauge rosette, which is manufactured by stacking multiple
strain gages in different directions, is used. Fig. shows a three-element strain
gage rosette stacked at at 45 degree. .
 Differential pressure Transducer
⮚ Absolute pressure: This is the difference between the pressure of the fluid and the
absolute zero of pressure.
⮚ Gauge pressure: This describes the difference between the pressure of a fluid and
atmospheric pressure. Absolute and gauge pressure are therefore related by the
expression:
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Thus, gauge pressure varies as the atmospheric pressure changes and is
therefore not a fixed quantity.
⮚ Differential pressure: This term is used to describe the difference between two absolute
pressure values, such as the pressures at two different points within the same fluid (often
between the two sides of a flow restrictor in a system measuring volume flow rate)
Two references:
Atmosphere pressure
Below atmosphere pressure – Negative gauge pressure/ Vacuum
Pressure above atmospheric pressure is called for positive gauge factor (Psig)
Pressure below atmosphere is a vacuum (negative gauge pressure )
Absolute pressure (psia) is measured from prefect vacuum
 Gauge, absolute, atmospheric pressure

Pressure measurement
If h is the height of any liquid of density ρ, the fluid pressure p is given by the
relation p = ρ h
 Manometers
⮚ Manometers, more aptly known as liquid column manometers, are used for low range pressure
measurement.
⮚ It is simplest and most accurate of all the types.
⮚ It is generally used within a range of 2 kg/cm2 , i.e., 0.2 MPa.
⮚ Manometers are of two basic types,
(i) U-tube type and (ii) well type.
⮚ Variations in these types are also known such as
enlarged leg type, inclined tube type. etc.
⮚ Another commercial manometer is the
ring-balance type.
⮚ One of the oldest method for pressure measurement
⮚ Can be used to measure absolute, gage, differential pressure
U tube manometer
⮚ Manometers are passive instruments that give a visual indication of pressure values. Various types
exist. The U-tube manometer is the most common form of manometer.
⮚ Applied pressure causes a displacement of liquid inside the U-shaped glass tube, and the output
pressure reading P is made by observing the difference h between the level of liquid in the two halves
of the tube A and B, according to the equation P =ρh, where ρ is the density of the fluid.
 If an unknown pressure is applied to side A, and side B is open to the
atmosphere, the output reading is gauge pressure.
⮚ Alternatively, if side B of the tube is sealed and evacuated, the output reading
is absolute pressure.
⮚ The U-tube manometer also measures the differential pressure p1- p2, according
to the expression p1 - p2 = ρh, if two unknown pressures p1 and p2 are applied
respectively to sides A and B of the tube. Output readings from U-tube
manometers are subject to error, principally because it is very difficult to judge
exactly where the meniscus levels of the liquid are in the two halves of the tube.
⮚ Properties desired f manometer fluid
Should not wet the wall
Not absorb gas
Not react chemically
Should move freely
Have low vapor pressure
 well-type Manometer
 The well-type or cistern manometer is similar to a U-tube
manometer but one half of the tube is made very large so that it
forms a well. The change in the level of the well as the measured
pressure varies is negligible. Therefore, the liquid level in only one
tube has to be measured, which makes the instrument much easier
to use than the U-tube manometer
 In a well type manometer, one leg is replaced by a large diameter
well, Since the c/s area of the well is much larger than the other
leg, when the pressure is applied to the well, the manometer liquid in
the well lowers only slightly compared to liquid rise in the other leg.
 As a result pressure difference can be indicated only by the hght of
the liquid column in the single leg.
 P2-P1=ρ*(1+A1/A2)h (if P2>P1)
A1- area of small diameter leg;A2- Area of well;A1/A2<<1,
then P2-P1=ρh
 If the area of well is 500 or more times larger than the area of
vertical leg, the error involved in neglecting the area term is
negligible
 Inclined Manometer
⮚ The inclined manometer or draft gauge, is a variation on the well-type manometer in which one leg
of the U-tube is inclined to increase measurement sensitivity.
⮚ The inclined leg expands the scale of manometer so that lower pressure difference can be read
very easily.
⮚ Imagine we are using U tube manometer to measure P2-P1 which is low. Under this circumstance
the difference of liquid level in two limb is very small which is very difficult to read . To overcome
this incline one leg of the manometer such that lower pressure difference can be read easily.
⮚ Refer the figure if the leg is not inclined let Rm be the reading corresponding to the difference
of pressure.
⮚ By inclining one leg equivalent portionof the Rm is R1 which is easy to measure Hence the sensitivity
of manometer is increased.
⮚ Let α Inclination angle, then
⮚ P2-P1=ρ (1+A1/A2)R1*sinα
⮚ If A1<<A2 ,thenP2-P1=ρ*R1*sinα
⮚ The scale of manometer can be extended greatly
by decreasing the angle of inclined leg to a small
value.
 Float type Manometer
 This is variation of well type manometer
 A well much larger diameter is there; There is another well
with lesser diameter. Both the wells are connected by a
flexible connection.
 Well with larger dia is connected to a high pressure source.
 Well with lesser dia is connected to a low pressure source.
 AS manometer liquid changes its position the float inside the
well also changes its position. The position of float is taken as
a measure of pressure .
 Float generates enough force to move pointer which moves
over a graduated scale.
 The scale can be calibrated to read pressure.
 BY replacing the pointer by a pen and scale by a chart, float
type manometer can be converted to a recording type
manometer
 It is easy to change the span of measurement by changing
the dia of one leg.
 Elastic Transducer Bourdon Tube
 Bourdon tube invented by Eugene Bourdon
 C shaped bourdon tube has hallow eliptical C/S
 It is closed @ one end and the fluid whose pressure to be measured is applied @ the other end (open
end)which is also rigidly fixed.
 Take a circular C/S tube and flatten the tube to make C/S elliptical; Seal one end of the tube and make the
tube in the form of C; A pointer is connected to sealed end of the tube through gear and linkage system.
When pressure is applied at the end which is rigidly fixed, the C/s of the tube tries to become circular from
elliptical one.
 When the fluid whose pressure is to be measured is applied ,C/S becomes circular This will cause the tube
to straighten out until the force of the fluid pressure is balanced by the elastic resistance of the tube
material.
 Since open end of the bourdon tube is fixed, the change pressure will move the closed end. A pointer is
attached to the closed end through gear and pinion ; The pointer moves over graduated scale.
 As C/S tries to become circular so sealed end tip of tube will move; hence pointer deflects.
 The displacement of the tip of the bourdon tube can be measured using displacement measurement
transducer.
 When pressure is applied, the other end tip of bourdon tube deflects which is proportional to the applied
pressure.
 The deflection of the tip of tube also depends on other parameters, angular length, pressure applied, radius
of curvature to which tube is bent, geometry of C/S ( elliptical shape- minor axis and major axis dimension),
thickness of bourdon tube, elasticity of material used.
 A typical bourdon tube has max displacement of 4mm; Radius=25mm; Materials used should have very good
elasticity like bronze , Berryllium copper, steel, Alloy steel,NispanC alloy.
⮚ To increase the sensitivity of bourdon tube, increase the angular length; Hence extend the element into
spiral , helical coils.
⮚ This increase their effective angular length and hence the movement of their tip which in turn increases
the sensitivity and resolution of the bourdon tube. These both give a much higher deflection at the free
end and for a given applied pressure. However the increased measurement performance is gained at the
expense of a substantial increase in manufacturing difficulty and cost compared with C type tubes and is
also associated with decrease in the maximum pressure that can be measured i.e range of the instruments
 Limitations of bourdon tube
 The problem is concerned with the relationship between the fluid being measured
and the fluid used for calibration.
 The pointer of Bourdon tubes is normally set at zero during manufacture, using air as
the calibration medium. Pointer of bourdon tube is normally set @ zero when no
pressure is applied.
 However, if a different fluid, especially a liquid, is subsequently used with a Bourdon
tube, the fluid in the tube will cause a non-zero deflection according to its weight
compared with air, resulting in a reading error of up to 6%.
 This can be avoided by calibrating the Bourdon tube with the fluid to be measured
instead of with air, assuming of course that the user is aware of the problem.
 Alternatively, correction can be made according to the calculated weight of the fluid
in the tube.
 Unfortunately, difficulties arise with both of these solutions if air is trapped in the
tube, since this will prevent the tube being filled completely by the fluid. Then, the
amount of fluid actually in the tube, and its weight, will be unknown
 Elastic pressure transducer- Bellow pressure gauge
A bellow element is one piece expansible , collapsible and axially flexible
member. Bellows are thin walled cylindrical shells with deep convolutions and
are sealed @ one end.
The sealed end will undergo axial displacement when pressure is applied @ the
open end and displacement is function of applied pressure
Bellows are made of good elastic materials like brass, phosphor, bronze,
beryllium copper. Stainless steel not highly eleastic is also sometimes used for
its anti corrosive property
More sensitive than bourdon tube Used for measuring low pressure;
Bellows with deep convolution are shown , bellows are spring loaded inside
so that deflection can be controlled. Connecting link , sector and pinion
assembly is used to read the displacement of bellows ; pointer moves over
Schematic of bellows
graduated scale which is read for pressure measurement.
Two bellows connected with each other; We have attached a
pointer to the link which connect the two bellows; Movement of
pointer against the scale is combined motion of the bellows.
Hence the pointer movement is proportional to difference
between pressure p1 and p2.
Elastic pressure transducer- Diaphragm pressure gauge

1. Diaphragm pressure gauge are based on the deflection of a flexible

membrane that separate regions of different pressure.
2. Deformation of thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in
pressure between its two faces.
3. The amount of deflection of thin diaphragm is repeatable for known
pressures so the pssure can be determined by using suitable calibration.
4. Two types : Metallic diaphragm , Non – metallic diaphragm
 Elastic pressure transducer- Diaphragm pressure gauge
5. A metallic diaphragm pressure gauge uses thin flexible diaphragm of materials
like brass, bronze, monel, Ni span C,etc.
6. The force of the pressure against the effective area of the diaphragm causes a
deflection of the diaphragm,
7. The motion of diaphragm is a measure of pressure and the motion of diaphragm
operates an indicating or recording type instrument.
8. Diaphragm can also be made of non metallic elements: Rubber, plastic , leather
9. Diaphragm element is spring loaded so that the range and sensitivity can be
varied.
10. Diaphragm element can measure both the absolute and differential pressure
11.A capsule is formed by joining two diaphragms at the periphery.
12.The sensitivity of the pressure gage can be increased by cascading several
capsules.
13.When a pressure is applied to the capsules assembly by an inlet pipe passing
through the centre of all the capsules. The deflection of the gage will be the sum of
the individual capsules
 Very high Pressure Measurement
Wire coil in bellows:
1. Measurement of pressure above 7000 bar is normally carried out electrically by monitoring the
change of resistance of wires of special materials.
2. Materials having resistance –pressure characteristics that are suitably linear abd sensitive include
manganin and gold chromium alloys.
3. A coil of such is enclosed in a sealed , kerosene filled , flexible bellows;
4. The unknown pressure is applied to one end of the bellows , which transmits the pressure to the
coil.The magnitude of the applied pressure is then determined by measuring the coil resistance.
5. Pressure upto 30,000 bar can be measured by devices like the manganin-wire pressure sensor with
a typical accuracy of +/-0.5% Using Diaphragm &seal pot
 Pressure measurement of corrosive fluid
 It is necessary to protect the pressure gauge from the effect of the corrosive fluid whose
pressure is being measured.
 Avoid direct contact of pressure gauge and the corrosive fluid
 Use diaphragm seal or liquid seal (seal pot)
 When the chemicals present in a fluid are very aggressive, and the pressure transducer is
not available in materials sufficiently resistant to corrosion, it is often possible to mitigate
these conditions with a fluid isolation system.
 The reason differential pressure sensors might not be as common in corrosive media
applications is that they measure the pressure difference between two points in a system. In
many corrosive media applications, the focus is on measuring the pressure of the corrosive
substance itself, rather than comparing it to another point within the system.
 However, there might still be some applications where differential pressure sensors are used
in corrosive media, especially if there is a need to measure the pressure difference across a
membrane or a filter. In such cases, it’s essential to choose a differential pressure sensor
designed to handle corrosive media, ensuring that both the high and low-pressure sides of
the sensor are resistant to the corrosive substances present in the application.
 Digital Transducer
A transducer measures physical quantities and transmits the information as coded digital signals
rather than as continuously varying currents or voltages. Any transducer that presents information as
discrete samples and that does not introduce a quantization error when the reading is represented in the
digital form may be classified as a digital transducer.
• Relative advantages of digital transducers over their analog counterparts:
– High resolution (depending on the word size of the encoder output and the number of pulses per
revolution of the encoder)
– High accuracy (particularly due to noise immunity of digital signals and superior construction)
– Relative ease of adaptation in digital control systems (because transducer output is digital) with
associated reduction in system cost and improvement of system reliability
Optical Digital transducer Ex: shaft Encoder
Ex: Shaft Encoder
⮚ Any transducer that generates a coded reading of a measurement can be termed an encoder.
⮚ Shaft Encoders are digital transducers that are used for measuring angular displacements and velocities.
⮚ Shaft Encoders can be classified into two categories depending on the nature and method of interpretation of the
output:
– Incremental Encoders
– Absolute Encoders
 Incremental Encoders
⮚ A Sector may be designed with a pattern of opaque and transparent areas. Note that
an incremental encoder disk requires only one primary track that has equally spaced
and identical window (pick-off) areas. The window area is equal to the area of the
inter-window gap. Usually, a reference track that has just one window is also present
in order to generate a pulse (known as the index pulse) to initiate pulse counting for
angular position measurement and to detect complete revolutions.
⮚ A parallel beam of light (e.g., from a set of light- emitting diodes) is projected to all
tracks from one side of the disk.
⮚ The transmitted light is picked off using a bank of photosensors on the other side of
the disk that typically has one sensor for each track.
⮚ The light sensor could be a silicon photodiode, a phototransistor, or a
photovoltaic cell.
⮚ The displacement to be measured is applied to the disk.
⮚ Since the light from the source is interrupted by the opaque areas of the track,
the output signal from the probe is a series of voltage pulses. This signal can be
interpreted to obtain the angular position and angular velocity of the disk
 Incremental Encoders
⮚ Output is a pulse signal that is generated when the transducer disk rotates as a
result of the motion that is being measured.
⮚ By counting pulses or by timing the pulse width using a clock signal, both angular
displacement and angular velocity can be determined.
⮚ Displacement, however, is obtained with respect to some reference point on the disk,
as indicated by a reference pulse (index pulse) generated at that location on the
disk. The index pulse count determines the number of full revolutions.
Signal Generation can be accomplished using any one of four techniques:
Optical (photosensor) method
Sliding contact (electrical conducting) method
Magnetic saturation (reluctance) method
Proximity sensor method

Method of signal interpretation and processing is the same for all four types of signal
generation
 Schematic Representation of an Optical Encoder One ⮚ Displacement Computation:
Track and One Pick-Off Sensor Shown
Θ= 360 *No of pulses counted/ Maximum no
of pulses

Pulse-Timing Method
⮚ Two methods are available for determining
velocities using an incremental encoder:
▪ pulse-counting method
▪ pulse-timing method
Pulse counting Method:
To compute the angular velocity , suppose that
the count during a sample period T is n pulses.
Hence, the average time for one pulse
is T/n. If there are N windows on the disk,
the average time for one revolution is NT/n.
⮚ The time for one encoder cycle is
measured using a high-frequency
clock signal. This method is
particularly suitable for measuring
low speeds accurately.
⮚ Suppose that the clock frequency is f
Hz. If m cycles of the clock signal are
counted during an encoder period
(interval between two adjacent windows),
the time for that encoder cycle (i.e., the
time to rotate through one encoder
pitch) is given by m/f.
⮚ With a total of N windows on the track,
the average time for one revolution of
the disk is Nm/f. Hence ω =
2πf/Nm.
 Absolute Encoders
 An absolute encoder has many pulse tracks on its transducer disk.
 The pulse windows on the tracks can be organized into some pattern
(code) so that each of these binary numbers corresponds to the
angular position of the encoder disk at the time when the particular
binary number is detected.
 When the disk of an absolute encoder rotates, several pulse trains – equal
in number to the tracks on the disk are generated simultaneously.
 At a given instant, the magnitude of each pulse signal will have one of two
signal levels (i.e., a binary state) as determined by a level detector. This
signal level corresponds to a binary digit (0 or 1). Hence, the set of pulse
trains gives an encoded binary number at any instant.
 Pulse voltage can be made compatible with some form of digital logic
(e.g., TTL)
 Direct digital readout of an angular position is possible
 Schematic Diagram of an Absolute Encoders
Absolute Encoder Disk
Pattern
(a) Binary code
(b) Gray code

Ambiguities in bit switching can be avoided by using gray code.

However, additional logic is needed to covert the gray coded
number to a corresponding binary number.

Optical Encoder
Advantages:
Direct digital read out Absolute Encoders must be powered
and monitored only when a reading is
No moving parts so no wear problems exists; taken. Also, if a reading is missed, it
Disadvantages: will not affect the next reading.
Life of lamp is limited (50,000 Hrs); Hence requireIn Binary Code, bit switching may not take
replacement place simultaneously.

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