The Respiratory System

Prepared by: Arthur Christian B.

Mangio, PTRP
 The Steps Involved in Respiration
• Pulmonary ventilation (pulmon- = lung), or breathing, is
the inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air
and involves the exchange of air between the
atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs. Inhalation
permits O2 to enter the lungs and exhalation permits
CO2 to leave the lungs.
• External (pulmonary) respiration is the exchange of
gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in
pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane.
In this process, pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and
loses CO2
• Internal (tissue) respiration is the exchange of
gases between blood in systemic capillaries
and tissue cells. In this step the blood loses O2
and gains CO2. Within cells, the metabolic
reactions that consume O2 and give off CO2
during the production of ATP are termed
cellular respiration
 COMPONENTS
• Structurally
– The upper respiratory system includes the nose, nasal cavity,
pharynx, and associated structures
– The lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and lungs
• Functionally
– The conducting zone consists of a series of interconnecting cavities
and tubes both outside and within the lungs. These include the nose,
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and
terminal bronchioles; their function is to filter, warm, and moisten
air and conduct it into the lungs.
– The respiratory zone consists of tubes and tissues within the lungs
where gas exchange occurs. These include the respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli and are the
 Functions
• Provides for gas exchange: intake of O2 for
delivery to body cells and removal of CO2
produced by body cells.
• Helps regulate blood pH.
• Contains receptors for sense of smell, filters
inspired air, produces vocal sounds
(phonation), and excretes small amounts of
water and heat.
The Upper Respiratory Tract
 1. Nose
• Specialized organ at the entrance of the respiratory
system that consists of 2 parts
– The internal nose - large space in the anterior aspect of the
skull that lies inferior to the nasal bone and superior to the
oral cavity; it is lined with muscle and mucous membrane
– The external nose - portion of the nose visible on the face
and consists of a supporting framework of bone and
hyaline cartilage covered with muscle and skin and lined by
a mucous membrane
• Bony framework - frontal bone, nasal bones, and maxillae
• Cartilaginous framework - consists of several pieces of hyaline
cartilage connected to each other and certain skull bones by
fibrous connective tissue
 Components of the Cartilaginous
Framework

• Septal nasal cartilage - forms the anterior

portion of the nasal septum
• Lateral nasal cartilages - inferior to the nasal
bones
• alar cartilages - which form a portion of the
walls of the nostrils.
• External nares or nostrils –
• Nasal vestibules
 Structures of The Internal Nose
• Nasal septum - divides the nasal cavity into right
and left sides communicates with the pharynx
through internal nares
• Respiratory epithelium
• Nasal vestibule - anterior portion of the nasal cavity
just inside the nostrils
• The interior structures of the external nose have
three functions:
• Warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air;
• Detecting olfactory stimuli
• Modifying speech vibrations as they pass
through the large, hollow resonating chambers.

– Resonance
 2. Pharynx or Throat
• Funnel-shaped tube about 13 cm
• Posterior to the nasal and oral cavities, superior to
the larynx, and just anterior to the cervical vertebrae.
• Relaxed skeletal muscles help keep the pharynx
patent.
• Contraction of the skeletal muscles assists in
deglutition (swallowing).
• Passageway for air and food, provides a resonating
chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils,
which participate in immunological reactions against
foreign invaders
 Regions
• Nasopharynx – superior portion
– Posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft
palate
• Soft palate - forms the posterior portion of the roof of the
mouth
– Through the internal nares, the nasopharynx receives air
from the nasal cavity along with packages of dust-laden
mucus
– Exchanges small amounts of air with the auditory tubes
to

– pharyngeal tonsil
• Oropharynx - intermediate portion
– Posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the soft palate
inferiorly to the level of the hyoid bone
– Fauces – opening to the mouth
• both respiratory and digestive functions, serving as a common
passageway for air, food, and drink.
– Lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
– Palatine and lingual
• Laryngopharynx – inferior portion
– Also known as
– Begins at the level of the hyoid bone
– In it’s nferior end it opens into the esophagus posteriorly
and to the larynx anteriorly
– Both
– Lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
The Lower Respiratory System
 1. Larynx
• Short passageway that connects the laryngopharynx
with the trachea
• It lies in the midline of the neck anterior to the
esophagus and the fourth through sixth cervical
vertebrae
• Composed of nine cartilages
– 3 occurs singly [thyroid, epiglottis, cricoid]
– 3 occurs in pairs [arytenoid, cuneiform, corniculate]
• Arytenoid – most important because they influence changes in
position and tension of the vocal folds (true vocal cords for speech)

• Thyroid cartilage – adam’s apple

• The epiglottis - a large, leafshaped piece of elastic
cartilage that is covered with epithelium
– During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise. Elevation of
the pharynx widens it to receive food or drink; elevation of the
larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over
the glottis, closing it off
– The closing of the larynx this way during swallowing routes
liquid and foods into esophagus and keeps them out of the
larynx and the airways
• The glottis consists of a pair of folds of mucous
membrane, the vocal folds (true vocal cords) in the larynx
• Rima glottidis – the space between

• Cough reflex – when small particles of dust, food smoke

or liquid passes through the larynx
 2. Trachea
• Or windpipe
• Tubular passageway for air that is about 12
cm (5 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter
• Anterior to the esophagus and extends from
the larynx to the superior border of the fifth
thoracic vertebra (T5), where it divides into
right and left primary bronchi
 3. Bronchi
• At the superior border of the fifth thoracic vertebra,
the trachea divides into a right main (primary)
bronchus (BRONG-kus = windpipe), which goes into
the right lung
– More vertical, shorter, and wider than the left
• Left main (primary) bronchus, which goes into the
left lung
• Carina - an internal ridge where the trachea divides
into right and left main bronchi
– The mucous membrane of the carina is one of the most
sensitive areas of the entire larynx and trachea for
• Upon entering the lungs, the main bronchi divide to
form smaller bronchi—the lobar (secondary) bronchi
• The lobar bronchi continue to branch, forming still
smaller bronchi, called segmental (tertiary) bronchi,
that supply the specific bronchopulmonary segments
within the lobes.
• The segmental bronchi then divide into bronchioles.
• Bronchioles in turn branch repeatedly, and the
smallest ones branch into even smaller tubes called
terminal bronchioles.
– The terminal bronchioles represent the end of the
conducting zone of the respiratory system
• Bronchial tree
 4. Lungs
• Paired cone-shaped organs in the thoracic cavity
• The lungs extend from the diaphragm to just slightly
superior to the clavicles and lie against the ribs anteriorly
and posteriorly

• They are separated from each other by the heart and

other structures of the mediastinum, which divides the
thoracic cavity into two anatomically distinct chambers
– If trauma causes one lung to collapse, the other may remain
expanded.
• Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double-layered
serous membrane called the pleural membrane or pleura.
• Parietal pleura – superficial layer, lines the wall of the thoracic
cavity
• Visceral pleura - deep layer, covers the lungs themselves
• Pleural cavity - small space between the visceral and parietal
pleurae
• contains a small amount of lubricating fluid secreted by the
membranes
– this pleural fluid reduces friction between the membranes, allowing
them to slide easily over one another during breathing
– causes the two membranes to adhere to one another just as a film
of water causes two glass microscope slides to stick together, a
phenomenon called surface tension
• Pleurisy or pleuritis – inflammation of the pleural cavity
• Pleural effusion – when excess fluids accumulates in the
pleural space due to persistent inflammation of the pleural
• Base – the broad inferior portion of the lungs
• Apex – the narrow superior portion of the lungs
• Costal surface -the surface of the lung lying
against the ribs
• Mediastinal surface of each lung contains a
region, the hilum, through which bronchi,
pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves enter and exit
• Cardiac notch – concavity on the medial surface
of the lungs where the heart lies
Lobes and Fissures
 Lobules
• Each bronchopulmonary segment of the lungs has
many small compartments called lobules
• each lobule is wrapped in elastic connective tissue
and contains a lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a
venule, and a branch from a terminal bronchiole
• Terminal bronchioles and lobule subdivide into
microscopic branches called respiratory
bronchioles
• They also have alveoli budding from their walls
• Alveoli participate in gas exchange, and thus
respiratory bronchioles begin the respiratory zone
of the respiratory system.
• As the respiratory bronchioles penetrate more
deeply into the lungs, the epithelial lining changes
from simple cuboidal to simple squamous.
• Respiratory bronchioles in turn subdivide into
several (2–11) alveolar ducts (al-VE--ō-lar), which
consist of simple squamous epithelium.
• The terminal dilation of an alveolar duct is
called an alveolar sac and is analogous to a
cluster of grapes
• Each alveolar sac is composed of
outpouchings called alveoli which is
analogous to individual grapes
Pulmonary Ventilation
• Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the flow of
air into and out of the lungs.
• In pulmonary ventilation, air flows between the
atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs because of
alternating pressure differences created by
contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles.
• Inhalation Breathing in is called inhalation (inspiration).
Just before each inhalation, the air pressure inside the
lungs is equal to the air pressure of the atmosphere,
which at sea level is about 760 millimeters of mercury
(mmHg), or 1 atmosphere (atm).
• For air to flow into the lungs, the pressure inside the
alveoli must become lower than the atmospheric
pressure.
• This condition is achieved by increasing the size of the
lungs.
• Exhalation Breathing out, called exhalation (expiration), is also due to a
pressure gradient, but in this case the gradient is in the opposite direction
• The pressure in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the atmosphere.
Normal exhalation during quiet breathing, unlike inhalation, is a passive
process because no muscular contractions are involved.
• Instead, exhalation results from elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs,
both of which have a natural tendency to spring back after they have
been stretched.
• Two inwardly directed forces contribute to elastic recoil:
(1) the recoil of elasticfibers that were stretched during inhalation and
(2) the inward pull of surface tension due to the film of
intrapleural fluid between the visceral and parietal pleurae.
 Muscles of Inhalation
• Diaphragm - The most important muscle of inhalation is
the diaphragm, the dome-shaped skeletal muscle that
forms the floor of the thoracic cavity
– Contraction of the diaphragm is responsible for about 75% of
the air that enters the lungs during quiet breathing
• The next most important muscles of inhalation are the
external intercostals
– When these muscles contract, they elevate the ribs. As a
result, there is an increase in the anteroposterior and lateral
diameters of the chest cavity.
– Contraction of the external intercostals is responsible for
about 25% of the air that enters the lungs during normal quiet
breathing.
 Forced Breathing
• SCM – elevate the sternum
• Scalene - elevate the first two ribs
• Pectoralis minor muscles - elevate the third
through fifth ribs.

• Because both normal quiet inhalation and inhalation

during exercise or forced breathing involve muscular
contraction, the process of inhalation is said to be
active
`
 Breathing Patterns
• Eupnea
• Costal breathing
• Diaphragmatic breathing
Lung Volumes and Capacity
• During inhalation and exhalation, varying amounts of air move
into and out of the lungs.
• These amounts depend on many factors related to various
characteristics of healthy individuals and pulmonary disorders.
• In general, lung volumes and capacities are larger in males,
taller individuals, younger adults, people who live at higher
altitudes, and those who are not obese.
• Various disorders may be diagnosed by comparison of actual
and predicted normal values for a person’s gender, height, and
age.
• Inhalation is recorded as an upward deflection, and exhalation
is recorded as a downward deflection
• Lung volumes - which can be measured
directly by use of a spirometer
• Lungs capacities, which are combinations of
different lung volumes.
• Spirometer - the apparatus used to measure
volumes and capacities
 Lung Volumes
• The volume of one breath is called the tidal volume (VT)
– 500 Ml
• By taking a very deep breath, you can inhale a good deal
more than 500 mL. This additional inhaled air, called the
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
– 3100 ml in males
– 1900 ml in females
• If you inhale normally and then exhale as forcibly as
possible, you should be able to push out considerably
more air in addition to the 500 mL of tidal volume
• The extra 1200 mL in males and 700 mL in females is
called the expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
• The forced expiratory volume in 1 second,
(FEV1) is the volume of air that can be exhaled
from the lungs in 1 second with maximal effort
following a maximal inhalation.
• Residual volume (RV) – amount of air left
after a forceful expiration
– 1200 mL in males
– 1100 mL in females
• If the thoracic cavity is opened, the intrapleural
pressure rises to equal the atmospheric pressure and
forces out some of the residual volume. The air
remaining is called the minimal volume
– provides a medical and legal tool for determining whether a
baby is born dead (stillborn) or died after birth.
– The presence of minimal volume can be demonstrated by
placing a piece of lung in water and observing if it floats.
– Fetal lungs contain no air, so the lung of a stillborn baby will
not float in water
 Lung Capacity
• Combinations of specific lung volumes
• Inspiratory capacity (IC) is the sum of tidal volume
and inspiratory reserve volume
– 500 mL + 3100 mL = 3600 mL in males
– 500 mL + 1900 mL = 2400 mL in females
• Functional residual capacity (FRC) is the sum of
residual volume and expiratory reserve volume
– 1200 mL + 1200 mL = 2400 mL in males
– 1100 mL + 700 mL = 1800 mL in females
• Vital capacity (VC) is the sum of inspiratory
reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory
reserve volume
– 4800 mL in males
– 3100 mL in females
• Total lung capacity (TLC) is the sum of vital
capacity and residual volume
– 4800 mL + 1200 mL = 6000 mL in males
– 3100 mL + 1100 mL = 4200 mL in females
 Control of Breathing
• Respiratory center
• Medullary respiratory center
• Pontine respiratory group
 Medullary Respiratory Center
• Made up of two collections of neurons
• Dorsal respiratory group
– During normal quiet breathing, neurons of the DRG generate
impulses to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves and the
external intercostal muscles via the intercostal nerves
• Ventral respiratory group
– The VRG becomes activated when forceful breathing is
required, such as during exercise, when playing a wind
instrument, or at high altitudes
– During forceful inhalation, nerve impulses from the DRG not
only stimulate the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
to contract, they also activate neurons of the VRG involved in
forceful inhalation to send impulses to the accessory muscles of
• Pre - Bötzinger Complex - cluster of neurons
located in the VRG believed to be important in
the generation of the rhythm of breathing
• Same with the conduction system of the heart
 Pontine Respiratory Group
• Formerly called PNEUMOTAXIC CENTER
• Collection of neurons in the pons
• The neurons in the PRG are active during inhalation
and exhalation.
• The PRG transmits nerve impulses to the DRG in the
medulla.
• The PRG may play a role in both inhalation and
exhalation by modifying the basic rhythm of
breathing generated by the VRG, as when
exercising, speaking, or sleeping.
 Respiratory Disorders
• Rhinitis
• Laryngitis
• Asthma
• Emphysema
• Pneumonia
• Tuberculosis
• Lung cancer
• Sudden infant death syndrome