1

METAL FORMING
Chapter 18
 Metal forming processes
2

 Manufacturing process in which plastic deformation is used to

change the shape of metal workpieces
 Tool… Die
 Applied stress exceeds yield strength of the metal
 Usually compressive
 Some processes involve Stretching, bending or shear
 Desirable metal properties
 Low Yield strength
 High ductility
 Metal forming processes
3

 Effect of temperature
 Yield strength decreases
 Ductility is increased
 Temperature is the distinction between cold and hot
work
 Metal forming processes
4

 Two main categories

 Bulk deformation
 Sheet metalworking
 Bulk deformation
5

 Significant deformation / massive shape change

 A/V ratio is small (A: surface area)

Rolling Forging Extrusion Drawing

 Sheet Metalworking
6

 Forming performed on metal sheet, strip and coils

 A/V is high
 Pressworking…
 Part in this process is called stamping
 Cold working process
 Tools: punch and die
 Punch: positive portion
 Die: negative portion
 Sheet Metalworking
7

Bending Drawing Shearing Shearing

Cup drawing
Deep drawing
 Metal forming processes
8
 Temperature in Metal Forming
9

 At higher temperatures …. What happens to metals?

 Strength and strain hardening are reduced
 Ductility is increased
 Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower
forces and power at elevated temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
 Cold Working
10

 Performed at room temperature or slightly above

 Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
 Minimum or no machining usually required
 These operations are near net shape or net shape processes
 Advantages of Cold Forming
11

 Better accuracy, closer tolerances

 Better surface finish
 Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
 Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional
properties in product
 No heating of work required, save money
 Disadvantages of Cold Forming
12

 Higher forces and power required

 Surfaces of starting workpiece must be clean
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming
that can be done
 Sometimes, annealing is performed to allow further deformation
 Sometimes, metal is not ductile enough to be cold worked
 Warm Working
13

 Performed at temperatures above room temperature

but below recrystallization temperature
 Temperature ~ 0.3Tm
 Advantages of Warm Working
14

 Lower forces and power than in cold working

 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
 Hot Working
15

 Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization

temperature
 Recrystallization temperature ~ 0.5Tm

 Why Hot working??

 Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal

is far more than cold working or warm working

 Advantages of Hot Working
16

 Part shape can be significantly altered

 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed
 Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
 No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
 Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed by
cold forming
 Disadvantages of Hot Working
17

 Lower dimensional accuracy

 Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to
heat the workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
 Shorter tool life
 18

BULK DEFORMATION
PROCESSES
Chapter 19
 Bulk Deformation
19

 Already studied!
 Can be Cold/Warm/Hot working
 Hot working
 significant shape change can be accomplished
 In cold working
 strength can be increased during shape change
 Waste??
 Little or no waste
 The parts require little or no subsequent machining
 Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
20

1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Wire and bar drawing
 Rolling
21

 Deformation process
 Work thickness is reduced by compressive forces exerted
by two opposing rolls
 The rotating rolls perform two main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

Flat Rolling
 Rolling
22
23
 Steel plant (Rolling Mill)
24
 Rolling
25

 Huge initial investment

 Mostly used… Hot rolling
 Process
 Cast steel Ingot is placed in furnace (Soaking pit) for long time
(Soaking) at almost 1200°C
 Rolling mill => Bloom/Slab/Billet

 Bloom => Railroad tracks

 Billet => Bars and rods (Raw material for further processing)
 Slab => Plates/Sheets/strips (Further cold rolling)
 Rolling products (steel)
26
 Shape Rolling
27

 Work is deformed into a contoured

cross‑section rather than flat
(rectangular)
 Accomplished by passing work
through rolls that have the reverse of
desired shape
 Sudden transformation??
 Products include:
 Construction shapes such as I‑beams,
L‑beams, and U‑channels, Rails for
railroad tracks, Round and square bars and
rods
 Shape Rolling
28

 Rolls can be horizontal and vertical

 Gradual transformation through rollers
 Roll pass design
 Design sequence of rolls to attain the desired shape
 Attain uniform transformation
 If the change is not uniform
 Rough/irregular surface
 Warping and cracking
 Rolling Mills
29

 Equipment is massive and expensive

 Rolling mill configurations:
 Two-high
 Three-high
 Four-high
 Cluster mill
 Tandem rolling mill
 Two high rolling mill
30

 Two opposing large diameter rolls

 2’ to 4.5’ diameter range
 Reversing / non-reversing
 Adv.
 Series of reductions on same part

 Disadv.
 Technical problems of high angular

momentum
 Three high rolling mill
31

 work passes through both

directions
 Series of reductions
 Four high rolling mill
32

 Small dia of rolls

 Small contact area

 Less force/Torque/power is

required
 backing rolls support smaller
work rolls
 Cluster mill
33

 Multiple backing rolls allow even

smaller roll diameters
 Tandem rolling mill
34

 sequence of two-high mills

 8-10 Rolls are used
 High synchronized speed
 Thread Rolling
35

 Form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies

 Commercial process for mass producing bolts and screws
 Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
 Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
 Better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses introduced by rolling
 Higher production rates
 Better material utilization
 Stronger threads due to work hardening Round Die

Flat Die
 Ring Rolling
36

 A thick‑walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a

thin‑walled ring of larger diameter
 Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings
 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for
railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and
rotating machinery
 Ring Rolling
37
38 Forging
 Forging
39

 Deformation process in which work is compressed between

two dies using either gradual or impact pressure
 Engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts
 High Strength
 In addition, basic metals industries use forging to establish
basic form of large components that are subsequently
machined to final shape and size
 Classification of Forging(Temp)
40

 Hot or warm forging

 Most common, due to the significant deformation and
the need to reduce strength and increase ductility of
work metal
 Cold forging
 Increased strength that results from strain hardening
 Classification of Forging(Pressure)
41

 Forge hammer
 applies an impact load
 Forge press
 applies gradual pressure
 Types of Forging Dies
42

 Open‑die forging
 work is compressed between two flat
dies, allowing metal to flow laterally
without constraint
 Impression‑die forging
 die surfaces contain a cavity or
impression that is imparted to workpart,
thus constraining metal flow - flash is
created
 Flashless forging
 workpart is completely constrained in
die and no excess flash is produced
 Open‑Die Forging
43

 Compression of workpart with cylindrical cross‑section

between two flat dies
 Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter
of work
 Common names: upsetting or upset forging
 Product is rough part
 Open‑Die Forging
44

 Fullering
 Reduce the X-section and redistribute the
material with convex dies
 Edging
 Same as Fullering but with concave die

 Cogging
 Sequence of forging compression along the

length
 Reduce X-section, increase length

 Incremental forging
 Impression‑Die Forging
45

 Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired

part shape
 Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into
small gap between die plates
 Impression‑Die Forging
46

 Forces are high due to flash formation

 Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it
serves an important function during compression:
 As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into
gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
 In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling
against die plates
 Force the metal to fill intricate details in the cavity
 Impression‑Die Forging
47

 Advantages compared to machining:

 Higher production rates
 Conservation of metal (less waste)
 Greater strength
 Favorable grain orientation in the metal
 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances (Precision forging can be used)
 Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features
needed, such as holes, threads, and mating surfaces that fit with
other components
 Flashless Forging
48

 Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose

cavity does not allow flash
 Flashless Forging
49

 Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume

within very close tolerance
 Process control more demanding than impression‑die
forging
 Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
 Often classified as a precision forging process
 Forces: same range as impression die forging
 Flashless Forging (coining)
50
 Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
51

 Apply an impact load against workpart through

lifting the ram (upper die)
 Gravity drop hammers
 impact energy from falling weight of a heavy ram
 Power drop hammers
 accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam
 Disadvantage:
 impact energy transmitted to floor of building
through anvil
 Most commonly used for impression-die
forging
 Forging Presses
52

 Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression

operation
 Mechanical presses
 converts rotation of drive motor into linear motion of ram
 Hydraulic presses
 hydraulic piston actuates ram (low speed)
 Screw presses
 screw mechanism drives ram (low speed)
 Forging Dies
53

 Study yourself!!!!

 Parting line
 Draft
 Web and ribs
 Fillet and corner radii
 Flash
 Other Deformation processes (Forging)
54

 Upsetting and Heading

 Swaging
 Roll Forging
 Orbital forging
 Hubbing
 Trimming
 Etc.
 Upsetting and Heading
55

 Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar

hardware products
56
 Upsetting and Heading
57

 More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging

operation
 Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers or
formers
 Usually horizontal slides
 Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then
piece is cut to length
 For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form
threads
 Swaging
58

 Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially inward to

taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
 Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
 Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of internal diameter
of tubular parts
 Swaging
59
 Radial Forging
60

 Similar to swaging, but the part is rotated instead of the dies

 Roll Forging
61

 Reducing the X-section of cylindrical/rectangular

part by passing it through a set of opposing rolls
having grooves matching the final shape
 Roll Forging
62
 Study
63

 Orbital forging
 Hubbing
 Trimming
64 Extrusion
 Extrusion
65

 Compression forming process in which the work metal is forced to flow

through a die opening to produce a desired cross ‑sectional shape
 Similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube
 Extrusion
66
 Extrusion
67

 Extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross-

sections
 Strength enhanced
 Close tolerances possible (specially in cold extrusion)
 Little or no waste

 Two basic types of extrusion (physical configuration)

 Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion
 Direct Extrusion
68

 forward extrusion
 Ram compresses the billet and forces it to flow through
opening(s)
 Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape is
determined by die opening
 Significant force due to Friction
 Hot extrude
 Oxide layer is present on billet surface
 A relatively small diameter dummy block is used in between the ram
and billet
 Oxide layer is left behind
 Direct Extrusion
69

 Hollow/Semi-hollow shapes
 Hole in the starting billet allow the passage of
mandrel
 Indirect Extrusion
70

 Backward/reverse extrusion
 Die is mounted on ram
 No friction as billet is not forces to slide relative to container:
 Less force
 Limitation
 Low rigidity of ram and difficulty to support product
 Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
71

 Self study
 Extrusion Ratio
72

Ao
rx 
Af

rx = extrusion ratio;
Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting billet
Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded section

 Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion

 Die/Die Angle
73

 Low die angle

 surface area is large, leading to

increased friction at die‑billet

interface
 Higher friction results in larger ram force
 Large die angle
 more turbulence in metal flow during

reduction
 Turbulence increases ram force required
 Optimum angle depends on work
material, billet temperature, and
lubrication
 Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die
74

 Simplest cross section shape

 circular die orifice
 Shape of die orifice affects
ram pressure
 Complex cross‑section
 higher pressure and greater force
are required
 Extrusion Presses
75

 Either horizontal or vertical

 Horizontal more common
 Hydraulically driven
 suited to semi‑continuous direct extrusion of long
sections
 Mechanical drives
 used for cold extrusion of individual parts
 Impact Extrusion
76

 High speed, Shorter stroke

 Forward/backward
/combined extrusion
 Impact Extrusion
77
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
78

 Fluid is used to transmit ram pressure on the billet

 Hydrostatic Extrusion
79

 Advantages
 Less friction
 Hydrostatic pressure increases material ductility
 Can be used on metals which are too brittle for
conventional extrusion
 High reduction ratios are possible
 Disadvantages
 Billet must be preformed to fit in to the die entry angle
 Self study
80

 Defects
 Centerburst/Arrowhead/center cracking etc.
 Piping
 Surface cracking
81 Wire and Bar Drawing
 Wire and Bar Drawing
82

 Cross‑section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it

through a die opening
 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in
drawing
 Tension/Compression??
 Pulling
 tension

 Metal is squeezed
 Compression
 Indirect compression
 Area Reduction in Drawing
83

Ao  Af
r 
Ao

r = area reduction in drawing

Ao = original area of work
Ar = final work
d  Do  Df

d= Draft
 Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing
84

 Bar drawing
 large diameter stock
 Single-draft
 Wire drawing
 small diameter stock
 Continuous drawing
 Drawing is carried out in a series of draw dies
 Although the mechanics are the same, the methods,
equipment, and even terminology are different
 Drawing Practice and Products
85

 Usually performed as cold working

 Most frequently used for round cross‑sections
 Other shapes are also drawn
 Products:
 Wire
 electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and shopping carts
 Rod stock
 for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
 Bar stock
 metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes
 Advantages
86

 Close dimensional control

 Good surface finish
 Improved mechanical properties
 High speed: Economical for large production
 Bar drawing equipment
87

 Draw bench
 Carriage
 Pull the stock through the draw die
 Die stand
 Hold die (Usually more than 1)
 Wire Drawing
88

 Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple

draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by
accumulating drums
 Wire Drawing
89

 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock

through upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction
is achieved by the series
 Annealing sometimes required between dies
 Draw Die
90

 Entry region
 Approach angle
 Bearing surface
 Back relief
 Draw Die
91

 Entry region
 funnels lubricant into the die to prevent scoring of work and die
 Approach
 cone‑shaped region where drawing occurs (6°-20°)
 Bearing surface
 determines final stock size
 Back relief
 exit zone - provided with a back relief angle (half ‑angle) of about 30 
 Die materials:
 tool steels or cemented carbides
 Preparation of the Work
92

 Annealing
 to increase ductility of stock (Also performed in between the steps for
wire drawing)
 Cleaning
 to prevent damage to work surface and draw die
 Pointing
 to reduce diameter of starting end to allow insertion through draw die
 Swaging, Rolling, Turning etc.
 Tube drawing
93

 Reduce the dia./X-section of tubes

 Tube sinking
 Without Mandrel
 No control over the inner dia./thickness
 Fixed Mandrel
 Limit the size
 Floating plug
 Plugs itself naturally
94 End