Microbiology - Demo Practice pdf1

Part II
Immunology
CHAPTER 12
IMMUNOLOGICAL
M E C H A N I S M S I N H E A LT H
Universities Press
3-6-747/1/A & 3-6-754/1, Himayatnagar
Hyderabad 500 029 (A.P.), India
Phone: 040-2766 5446/5447
Email: info@universitiespress.com
marketing@universitiespress.com
Dr Sonal Saxena, MD
Director Professor and Head of the Department of Microbiology
Maulana Azad Medical College,
New Delhi
and
Dr Amala A Andrews, MD
Maulana Azad Medical College,
New Delhi
UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

INTRODUCTION
 Immunity, in essence, is the distinguishing of non-self (that which does not
belong to the body) from self (that which belongs to the body)
 It is highly adaptable
 There are two important functions of immunity:
 To recognise a substance as foreign (to the host) and
 To respond to it

INTRODUCTION
‘Immunity’: Response of the host towards injury caused by microorganisms or any foreign
substance
It is body’s protective mechanisms against infectious diseases and has many other functions
Immunity depends on age, nutritional status, genetic make-up, underlying metabolic disorders,
etc.
Immune senescence: Age-related changes in the immune system of the elderly

INTRODUCTION
Lines of defence in a host
Innate immunity
Humoral and cell
(includes physical, mechanical, Adaptive immunity
mediated immunity
chemical and cellular barriers)

TYPES OF
IMMUNITY
Fig. 12.1 Types of immunity in a
human host

INNATE IMMUNITY
By virtue of genetic and constitutional make-up
Does not require prior contact with microorganisms or immunisation to be activated
Non-specific or specific
Induces rapid destruction of the pathogen by localised inflammatory protective mechanisms
Level: Species, race or individual

INNATE IMMUNITY
Species immunity: The total or relative refractoriness of a host to a pathogen, as exhibited by all
members of the host species (e.g., humans are not susceptible to plant pathogens)
Racial immunity: Within a species, races show differences in susceptibility to infection (e.g.,
high resistance of Algerian sheep to anthrax)
Individual immunity: This is the difference in innate immunity exhibited by different individuals
belonging to a race

FACTORS AFFECTING INNATE IMMUNITY
1. Age: The very young and the very old are more susceptible to infectious diseases
than the rest
2. Hormonal influences: Endocrine disorders (diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and

adrenal dysfunction) are associated with increased susceptibility to infection
3. Nutrition: Immune processes are reduced when there is malnutrition

PHYSICAL BARRIERS—THE FIRST LINE OF
DEFENCE
Table 12.1 Non-specific host defence barriers as the first line of defence

Epithelial surfaces
Intact skin and mucous membrane

PHYSICAL
BARRIERS— • Skin: High concentration of salt in sweat and sebaceous secretions
• Mucosa of the respiratory tract: Mucus lining of the epithelium
THE FIRST and cough reflex
LINE OF
DEFENCE The cilia on the respiratory epithelial cells propel particles
upwards
Nasal and respiratory secretions contain

mucopolysaccharides

PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Phagocytic cells trap particles that manage to reach the pulmonary alveoli and ingest them
Saliva
Digestive juices—highly acidic gastric juices
Conjunctiva—lachrymal secretions
Tears contain the antibacterial substance lysozyme

PHYSICAL BARRIERS
 Normal flora of the body: Forms a barrier against pathogens and prevents colonisation
 Acidic pH of the adult vagina : Inhospitable to many pathogens
After the microbes cross the physical barriers, the second line of defence, which is the non-
specific immunological defence (innate immunity) takes over.

CELLS OF  Macrophages (monocytes, histiocytes and fixed
reticuloendothelial cells): Detect, engulf and destroy
THE pathogens and apoptotic cells
INNATE  Mast cells: Release granules and powerful chemical
IMMUNE mediators such as histamine into the environment
SYSTEM  Dendritic cells: Antigen-presenting cells, which are found
in tissues and skin
 Granular leukocytes (microphages): Neutrophils

(polymorphonuclear leukocytes)

CELLS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
 Mucosa-associated lymphoid cells: Specialised pathways for antigen uptake
 Phagocytic cells: Mediate natural defence against the invasion of blood and tissues
 Natural killer cells (NK cells): A class of lymphocytes—selectively kill virus-infected cells and
tumour cells; NK cells are activated by interferons

CELLS INVOLVED IN INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Fig. 12.2 Some of the cells

involved in innate and adaptive
immunity

MECHANISM OF INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
 Identify pathogens based on pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) found on
microbial agents (or any foreign substance)
 This recognition is based on pattern recognition receptors (PRR), which are present on
phagocytes or as soluble molecule
 The particles are immediately recognised as foreign and immobilised by soluble molecules of
PRR
 Pathogens are then ingested and phagocytosed or broken down by complement-mediated

lysis

MECHANISM OF Fig. 12.3 (a) Transmission electron microscopic (TEM) picture of Rickettsia
INNATE IMMUNE tsutsugamushi getting phagocytosed by a mouse mesothelial cell and (b)
diagrammatic representation of phagocytosis (Source: (a) Public Health
Image Library, ID 923/Dr Edwin P. Ewing, Jr/CDC)
SYSTEM
TYPES Toll-like receptors (TLRs): These are
transmembrane receptors present on
OF macrophages and dendritic cells
PRRS
Scavenger receptors: These include CD36,
CD68 and SRB1
MECHANISM
OF INNATE
IMMUNE Mannose receptors: These receptors are
present on the surface of phagocytes
SYSTEM
NOD-like receptors (NLRs): These are

nucleotide binding oligomerisation domain
(NOD)-like receptors; they recognise
intracellular bacterial cell products

MECHANISM OF INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
 Opsonins are molecules that bind to the surface of microbes
 Capsulated bacteria such as S. pneumoniae are not readily phagocytosed except in the
presence of opsonins

 Bacteria are phagocytosed into a vacuole (phagosome),
which fuses with the lysosomes found in the cell and
forms a phagolysosome
PHAGOCYTO  Action of the lytic enzymes in the phagolysosome
SIS
 Bacteria destroyed
 Brucella and lepra bacilli resist intracellular digestion

and may actively multiply inside the phagocytic cells

SOLUBLE DEFENCE MECHANISMS
 Part of innate immune system
 Soluble molecules help in the killing of viruses or lysis of bacteria
 Type I interferons—IFN-α and IFN-β are rapidly produced in response to the detection of
PAMP on viral cells
 Defensins—cysteine-rich peptides secreted by neutrophils, epithelial cells and macrophages

on the skin and mucous membrane
 They produce channels in the bacterial cell surface, causing influx of chemicals and cell death

OTHER NON-SPECIFIC MECHANISMS OF THE INNATE
IMMUNE SYSTEM
1. INFLAMMATION
 Non-specific defence mechanism
 Margination of leukocytes
 Leukocytes escape into the tissues by diapedesis and accumulate in large numbers
 Microorganisms present at the site are phagocytosed and destroyed
 Outpouring of plasma—dilute the toxic products present
 Fibrin barrier is laid—wall off the site of infection

IMMUNE SYSTEM
2. FEVER
 Helps to accelerate the physiological processes
 Destroy the infecting pathogens
 Stimulates the production of interferons
 Aids in recovery from viral infections

IMMUNE SYSTEM
3. ACUTE-PHASE REACTANT PROTEINS
Sudden increase in the plasma concentration of certain proteins, collectively called acute-phase
proteins, during infection
C-reactive protein (CRP)—first observed in the serum of patients during the acute phase of
pneumococcal pneumonia
Used in clinical practice as an adjunct diagnostic and monitoring test in bloodstream infections,
especially in the pediatric population

IMMUNE SYSTEM
 Mannose-binding protein
 Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein
 Serum amyloid
 P component
Mechanisms of action of acute phase reactants
Activate the alternative pathway of complements
Enhance host resistance, prevent tissue injury and promote the repair of inflammatory lesions

OTHER NON-SPECIFIC
MECHANISMS OF THE Table 12.2 Factors contributing to innate immunity and the
outcomes of their action
INNATE
IMMUNE SYSTEM
The immunity acquired by the host to selectively eliminate specific
foreign molecules is known as acquired (adaptive) immunity. It has the
following features:
1. Antigenic specificity
ACQUIRED 2. Diversity
OR
3. Immunologic memory
ADAPTIVE
4. Self/non-self-recognition—prevents it from acting against the body’s
IMMUITY own molecules while still effectively eliminating foreign antigens
Multiple mechanisms ensure self-tolerance; the failure of these

mechanisms may lead to autoimmunity

ACQUIRED OR
ADAPTIVE IMMUITY
Acquired immunity may be broadly categorised into classes:
1. Active immunity
2. Passive immunity

ACTIVE Resistance developed by an individual in response to an
antigenic stimulus
IMMUNITY Also known as adaptive immunity (it represents the adaptive

response of the host to a specific pathogen or its antigens)

FEATURES OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY
 Synthesis of antibodies (humoral immunity)
 Production of immunologically active cells (cellular

immunity)
Sets in only after a latent period, negative phase

 Is long-lasting
 Secondary response is faster
 Associated with immunological memory
Fig. 12.4 Primary and secondary immune
 Natural antibodies: IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies develop response in active immunity
without any exposure to specific antigen

FEATURES OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY
Depending on the duration of the immunity, active immunity may be:
1. Short-lived (as seen with typhoid fever)
2. Long-lasting (e.g., measles and rubella)
There are two types of active immunity:

i. Natural active immunity (in response to naturally occurring infection)
ii. Artificial active immunity (acquired due to vaccination)

TYPES OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY
1. Natural active immunity Results from either a clinical or an inapparent infection by a
microbe
2. Artificial active immunity The resistance induced by vaccines; it follows a natural course
of immune response to an attenuated or genetically modified microorganism, which retains
its antigenicity but not its virulence
Herd immunity (also known as population immunity)

 A form of adaptive immunity seen in a population
 The majority of individuals develop immunity either due to an infection or immunisation
(universal or mass vaccination)

PASSIVE IMMUNITY
 Develops when a preformed antibody is administered to an individual
 To provide immediate protection against an infection
 Passive immunity is short-lived.
There are two types of passive immunity:
I) Natural passive immunity
II) Artificial passive immunity

NATURAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY
 Passively transferred from a mother to her baby
 Maternal antibodies are transmitted through the placenta
 Human colostrum, which is rich in IgA antibodies and resistant to intestinal digestion, gives
protection to the neonate
 Maternal antibodies give passive protection against infectious diseases to the infant
 Active immunisation of mothers during pregnancy Improves the quality of passive immunity in
infants
Fetuses synthesise antibodies (IgM) around the twentieth week of life; by about three months infant
acquires some measure of immunological Independence

ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Resistance passively provided to a recipient by the administration of preformed antibodies

(discussed in detail in Chapter 19)

Table 12.3 Differences between active and passive UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD
immunity
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INNATE AND
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Table 12.4 Some components of innate and adaptive defence mechanisms

Fig. 12.5 Four major mechanisms of
acquiring immunity during a lifetime

1. Primary lymphoid organs (where lymphoreticular cells
develop and mature)
2. Secondary lymphoid organs(where lymphoid cells and

antigens react)
CELLS OF IMMUNE The lymphoreticular system (or mononuclear phagocyte system)

RESPONSE consists of:
(IMMUNOCOMPETE  Lymphoid cells—lymphocytes and plasma cells (specific
NT CELLS) immune response)
 Phagocytic cells—monocytes and macrophages (also known as

scavenger cells)—ingesting and digesting exogenous antigens and
foreign particles

TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE
Humoral immunity (antibody-mediated)
Mediated by antibodies produced by plasma cells present in blood and other body fluids
Cellular immunity
Mediated by sensitised (activated) lymphocytes
Hematopoiesis: All cells of immunological importance originate from a hematopoietic stem

cell (HSC)

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD Fig. 12.6 Hematopoiesis
LYMPHOID SYSTEM
 Thymus and bone marrow: Primary lymphoid organs
 Spleen and lymph nodes: Secondary lymphoid organs
Lymphoid cells consist of lymphocytes and plasma cells
Fig. 12.7 Lymphoid system

I. CENTRAL (PRIMARY) LYMPHOID ORGANS
1. THYMUS
 Primary function of the thymus: Production of thymic lymphocytes
 Lymphocytes conditioned in the thymus: Thymus-dependent lymphocytes or T cells
 More than 95 per cent of all thymocytes(cause autoimmune disease) die by apoptosis
2. THYMUS
 All lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow
 T lymphocytes mature in the thymus, B lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow itself

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THYMUS DYSFUNCTION
 DiGeorge syndrome: Deficient cell-mediated immunity

(CMI) is seen in congenital aplasia of the thymus
1. THYMUS  Runt disease: Deficiency of CMI is evident from
lymphopenia, deficient graft rejection and the so-called ‘runt
disease’ seen in neonatally thymectomised mice
 Post-thymectomy: Thymectomy primarily affects the CMI

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF BONE MARROW DYSFUNCTION
Depletion/suppression of bone marrow activityhumoral

2. BONE immunodeficiency and increased bacterial infection
MARROW X-linked (Bruton type) agammaglobulinemia
Transient hypogammaglobulinemia―when maternal

antibody wanes

II. PERIPHERAL (SECONDARY)
LYMPHOID ORGANS
1. Lymph nodes
2. Spleen
3. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
4. Bone marrow

1. LYMPH NODES
Distributed along the lymphatic Functions
vessels
Have lymphocytes (B and T cells) in Phagocytosis
the cortex, dendritic macrophages,
Proliferation and circulation of T and B cells
plasma cells and interdigitating dendritic
cells in the medulla
They enlarge following local antigenic stimulation
Act as a filter for lymph

2. SPLEEN
 The largest secondary lymphoid Functions

organ
 The white pulp (WP) of the spleen Clearance of effete or damaged cells from the bloodstream
consists of the periarteriolar lymphoid  Host resistance to bacterial infections (primarily against blood-
sheath (PALS), which contains T cells borne antigens)
and antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
Clinical significance of splenectomy—depend on the individual’s age

In children: Increased incidence of bacterial sepsis caused primarily by Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Neisseria meningitidis and Haemophilus influenzae
In adults: The effects are less adverse and may lead to bacterial infections (bacteremia)
Rich collection of specialised lymphoid cells:
 M cells (microfold cells): transport the antigen from the lumen
3. MUCOSA- of the gut to the immune cells in specialised aggregates
ASSOCIATED  Peyer’s patches
LYMPHOID
 Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
TISSUE (MALT)
 Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)
• MALT contains lymphoid as well as phagocytic cells

• Secretory IgA, other immunoglobulin classes, IgG, IgM and IgE
are also formed locally

 Significant role as a secondary lymphoid organ
4. BONE  It is capable of antigen presentation in an immunological
MARROW reaction similar to the lymph nodes

CELLS OF 3 types—T cells, B cells and natural killer (NK) cells
LYMPHORETIC Lymphocytic circulation
ULAR SYSTEM
LYMPHOCYTE  A lymphocyte completes one cycle of recirculation in one
or two days
S
 Recirculating lymphocytes can be recruited by the
lymphoid tissues whenever necessary
Functions:
 Recognition of antigens
 Storage of immunological memory
 Immune response to specific antigens

Immune response to antigens
Specific antigen-recognition mechanisms
Nature of the immune response depends on whether B or T cell.
LYMPHOCY Stimulated T cells induce CMI
TES Stimulated B cells divide and transform into plasma cells, which
synthesise immunoglobulins
Surface markers: Called cluster of differentiation (CD) markers—

reflect the stage of differentiation and functional properties of the
cells

LYMPHOCYTES Table 12.5 Some CD markers and their cell-type
associations

Table 12.6 Some distinguishing characteristics of T cells, B
DIFFERENCE
cells and macrophages BETWEEN T AND B
CELLS
T CELLS
T cells are differentiated from other lymphocytes by:
 The presence of a receptor on their cell surface
 The T cell receptor (TCR)
Fig. 12.8 T cell maturation

T CELL RECEPTORS (TCR)
Progenitor T cells within the thymus acquire receptors called T cell receptors (TCR).
Pre-T cells differentiate into two lineages, expressing either of the following:
1. αβ TCR chains
2. γδ TCR chains
Functional TCR, in association with CD3, act as the antigen recognition unit, analogous to Ig on the
surface of B cells

CHARACTERISTICS OF T-CELLS RECEPTORS
TCRs are capable of recognising host-specific
antigen–major histocompatibility complexes
(MHC)
Contact with self-antigens within the thymus

T CELL leads to the destruction of immature T cells
RECEPTORS carrying the corresponding TCR
(TCR) Cells capable of reacting with autoantigens
continue to arise throughout life; these potentially
harmful forbidden clones are deleted by antigen-
specific T suppressor cells.
TCR of CD4+ cells respond to antigens presented

with HLA class II molecules

T- CELLS
Mature CD4 are helper/inducer cells CD8 are suppressor/T cytotoxic cells (TC)
- Induce B cell differentiation - Inhibit B cell antibody synthesis
- Stimulate proliferation of CD8+ cytotoxic cells - Act as cytotoxic effector cells
- Produce lymphokines
- Regulate certain stages of erythropoiesis

TYPES OF T CELLS
Various T cell categories that have been identified based on the following:
Their surface markers
Their target cells
Their functions

EFFECTOR T CELLS
 Interact with a target cell exhibiting a specific antigen
 Different types of effector T cells
1. Helper/Inducer (Th) cells: Have CD4 surface markers

and MHC class II restriction
i. Th1 cells: Produces cytokines, interferon gamma, IL-2
(kills intracellular pathogens)
ii. Th2 cells: Produces IL 4,5,6, stimulates B cells to
produce antibodies
iii. Th17 cells: Produces cytokine IL 17, promotes

inflammation (autoimmune-SLE)
Fig. 12.9 Effector T cells

EFFECTOR T CELLS
2. Cytotoxic/Cytolytic T cells (Tc): These are cells
with
 CD8 surface markers and MHC class I

restriction
 Kills tumour, allograft and virus-infected cells
Fig. 12.10 Cytotoxic T cells

EFFECTOR T CELLS
3. Memory cells (Tm):
• Antigen-specific T cells (Both CD4 and CD8)
• Memory and anamnestic response
• Central and effector memory T cells
Regulatory T cells
 Treg cells are CD4+ secrete TGF beta
 Regulate immune response and tolerance to self-reacting cells

B CELLS
Humoral immunity
Producing immunoglobulins.
Precursor pro b cell develops in bone marrow

B CELL MATURATION AND SYNTHESIS OF
IMMUNOGLOBULINS
 Initially, rearrangement of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes

 Immature B cell stage—IgM is expressed on the cell
surface
 Immunoglobulin isotype switching, the cell expresses on

its surface IgD as well as one of the other Ig classes—IgM,
IgG, IgA or IgE
Fig. 12.11 B cell maturation

TYPES OF B CELLS
 Plasma cells—antibody-secreting cells
 Memory B cells—have a long life, mediate secondary immune response
 B1 cells—express CD5 on their surface, common in fetal neonatal life, responsible for T cell-
independent IgM antibodies
 CD5+ B cells relevant in causation of autoimmunity
Antigen (extracellular) → Naive B cell → Activation of B cell → Lymphoblast → Plasma cell
Memory cells B1 cells

5–10% lymphocytes
Lack features of B and T cells
Large granular lymphocytes
NULL CELLS
Types of null cells
― Natural killer cells (NK)
― Antibody dependent cytotoxic cells (ADCC)
― Lymphokine-activated killer cells (LAK)

NATURAL KILLER CELLS (NK CELLS)
 Spontaneous cytotoxicity, mainly to malignant and virus-infected cells
 Not antibody-dependent or MHC-restricted
 Activity is ‘natural’
 NK cell activity is augmented by interferons
 The cytolytic factor perforin of NK cells produces transmembrane pores through which cytotoxic
factors such as the tumour necrosis factor beta (TNFβ) enter the cell and destroy it by apoptosis
(programmed cell death)

ANTIBODY-DEPENDENT CYTOTOXIC CELLS
(ADCC)
A group of NK cells, possessing surface receptors for the Fc part of Ig
Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity
Lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells
NK cells activated by IL-2; kills tumour cells

PHAGOCYTIC CELLS
Mononuclear macrophages (of blood and tissues) and
polymorphonuclear microphages
1. Macrophages
 They may be circulating or fixed cells
 Circulating monocytes—blood macrophages
Fig. 12.12 Macrophage with phagosomes, pseudopodia

and lysosome granules

 Fixed-tissue macrophages
Alveolar macrophages
1. Histiocytes
MACROPHAG Kupffer cells

Osteoclasts
ES Mesangial cells
Mycobacteria, Salmonella and Brucella survive inside

macrophages

MACROPHAGES—MECHANISM OF ACTION
Antigen processing cells: They trap antigens, process them and present them in optimal
concentration to the lymphocytes for the induction of antibodies
Features of activated macrophages
 Not antigen-specific
 They are larger, adhere better, spread faster on glass and are more phagocytic
 They secrete a number of biologically active substances

 Neutrophils: Non-specific active phagocytes augmented by
opsonins
2.
 Eosinophilic leukocytes: Allergic inflammation, parasitic
MICROPHAGE infection and around antigen–antibody complexes
S  Basophils: Found in the blood and tissues (mast cells);
their cytoplasm has large numbers of prominent basophilic
granules containing heparin, histamine, serotonin and other
hydrolytic enzymes

T helper cells can recognise only antigens that are displayed
together with class MHC II molecules on the surface of
3. ANTIGEN- antigen-presenting cells (APCs), which are specialised
PRESENTING dendritic cells, macrophages and B lymphocytes
CELLS They are major antigen-presenting cells; professional
(APC)/DENDRITIC antigen-presenting cells.
CELLS
They possess MHC class II expression.
Co-stimulatory signals (B7 and CD28) for Th activation are

found on these cells

3. ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS (APC)
(DENDRITIC CELLS)
 Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs): Selection of memory B
lymphocytes during germinal centre reactions (GCR)
 They present native antigens to potential memory cells, of
which only B cells with high affinity B cell receptors (BCR) can
bind
 B cell is another antigen-presenting cell
 Langerhans cells in the skin possess features of macrophages
and dendritic cells
Fig. 12.13 Dendritic cell with needle-like

projections

ABNORMALITIES OF IMMUNE CELLS
Table 12.4 Abnormalities of the immune cells and the resulting diseases

Microbiology - Demo Practice pdf1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Microbiology - Demo Practice pdf1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Microbiology - Demo Practice pdf1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Part II

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

Immune senescence: Age-related changes in the immune system of the elderly

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

Does not require prior contact with microorganisms or immunisation to be activated

Level: Species, race or individual

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

2. Hormonal influences: Endocrine disorders (diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

Intact skin and mucous membrane

Nasal and respiratory secretions contain

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

Tears contain the antibacterial substance lysozyme

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Acidic pH of the adult vagina : Inhospitable to many pathogens

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Granular leukocytes (microphages): Neutrophils

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

Fig. 12.2 Some of the cells

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Pathogens are then ingested and phagocytosed or broken down by complement-mediated

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

NOD-like receptors (NLRs): These are

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Brucella and lepra bacilli resist intracellular digestion

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Soluble molecules help in the killing of viruses or lysis of bacteria

 Defensins—cysteine-rich peptides secreted by neutrophils, epithelial cells and macrophages

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Microorganisms present at the site are phagocytosed and destroyed

 Outpouring of plasma—dilute the toxic products present

 Fibrin barrier is laid—wall off the site of infection

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Destroy the infecting pathogens

 Stimulates the production of interferons

 Aids in recovery from viral infections

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

Multiple mechanisms ensure self-tolerance; the failure of these

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

IMMUNITY Also known as adaptive immunity (it represents the adaptive

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

 Production of immunologically active cells (cellular

Sets in only after a latent period, negative phase

UNIVERSITIES PRESS PVT LTD

1. Short-lived (as seen with typhoid fever)

2. Long-lasting (e.g., measles and rubella)

There are two types of active immunity: