MS3220 – THERMAL ENGINEERING

12 TH WEEK

FREE CONVECTION
SECTIONS: 9.6 – 9.11
CHAPTER 9: FREE
CONVECTION
9.1 Physical Considerations
9.2 The Governing Equations for Laminar Boundary Layers
9.3 Similarity Considerations Heat Transfer I

9.4 Laminar Free Convections on a Vertical Surface

9.5 The Effects of Turbulence
9.6 Empirical Correlations: External Free Convection Flows
9.7 Free Convection within Parallel Plate Channels
Heat Transfer II
9.8 Empirical Correlations: Enclosures in Thermal Engineering
9.9 Combined Free and Forced Convections
9.10 Convection Mass Transfer
9.11 Summary 2
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Subtopics Learning Objectives Source
1. Turbulent free convection on vertical,
horizontal and inclined plates
Free convection within parallel plate 
Understand the usage of appropriate
2.
empirical equation for free convection in
channels
plates, channels, cavities and concentric
3. Free convection in rectangular Bergman et al.,
cylinders and spheres
cavities 9.6-9.9
4. Free convection in concentric  Understand the method to obtain the
combined free and forced convection heat
cylinders and spheres
transfer coefficient
5. Combined free and forced
convections

3
 REVIEW HEAT
TRANSFER I
(SUB CHAPTERS 9.1-9.5) 4
 9.1 PHYSICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
5
FREE CONVECTION AND
BOUYANCY
Free or Natural Convection: Convection without forced velocity (no pump or fan). Fluid motion is due to
buoyancy forces within the fluid.
Buoyancy is due to the combined presence of a fluid density gradient and a body force (gravity, centrifugal,
Coriolis force, etc.) that is proportional to density.
Will focus on density gradient due to a temperature gradient (dρ/dT < 0) and body force due to gravity.
The presence of a fluid density gradient in a gravitational field, however, does not ensure the existence of free
convection currents.

T1 (top) < T2 (bottom) T1 (top) > T2 (bottom)

(a) Unstable temperature gradient, free convection (b) Stable temperature gradient, conduction 6
Classification of Free Convection based on whether the flow is
bounded by a surface:
1. Free Boundary Flow (in the absence of an adjoining surface):
a. Plume
b. Buoyant Jet
2. Surface Bounded Flow (in the presence of adjoining surface):
a. Heated Vertical Plates
b. Inclined and Horizontal Plates
c. Long Horizontal Cylinders
d. Spheres
e. Etc.

7
FREE BOUNDARY FLOW:
PLUME AND BUOYANT JET

Buoyancy-driven free boundary flows in an extensive, quiescent medium:

(a) Plume formation above a heated wire in an extensive (infinite medium) and quiescent (velocity far from the
system is zero) fluid. Initial fluid velocity is zero.
(b) Buoyant jet associated with a heated discharge. Initial velocity is not zero.
Both will not be discussed in this section. 8
SURFACE BOUNDED FLOW:
HEATED VERTICAL PLATE
The plate is immersed in an extensive, quiescent fluid, ; the fluid close to the plate is less
dense than fluid that is further away. Buoyancy forces induce a free convection boundary
layer in which the heated fluid rises vertically.

Note that the velocity profile is

different than that for forced
convection boundary layer.

At y = 0: u = 0 At y = 0: T = Ts
At y = At y =

A free convection boundary layer also develops if . In this case the fluid motion is
downward. Draw the velocity and temperature profiles for this condition.

9
 9.2 THE GOVERNING
EQUATIONS FOR GOVERNING EQUATIONS

LAMINAR BOUNDARY SIMILARITIES

LAYERS 10
9.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS
Consider a laminar, vertical boundary layer flow driven by buoyancy forces on a flat surface. Assume
steady, 2-D, constant property condition except for density that causes the buoyancy force.
From the momentum equation (Eq. E.2 or 6.28):

Where dp∞/dx is the free stream pressure gradient in the quiescent region outside the boundary layer.
In this region, u = 0. Also, v = 0. Therefore:

Substitute the above equation to the top equation, with g is replaced by , and Δρ =
ρ∞- ρ, then:

The buoyancy force per unit mass.

11
Introducing the volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient (it measures the amount by which the density
changes due to a change in temperature at constant
pressure):
In the approximate form:

Or, we have the Boussinesq approximation:

Then, the momentum equation becomes:

The mass and energy conservation equations (Eqs. 6.27 & 6.29) are the same as in the boundary layer
condition. Therefore, the set of governing equations is then:

Note that the viscous dissipation has been neglected in the energy equation, reasonable for low velocity condition.
These 3 equations are strongly coupled and must be solved simultaneously.
12
In the previous equation, it can be seen that the free convection depends on
the expansion coefficient β.

For an ideal gas, ρ = p/RT, and:

T is in absolute temperature

For liquids and non-ideal gasses, β can be obtained from Appendix A: Tables
A.5 and A.6:

13
 9.3 SIMILARITY
CONSIDERATIONS
14
SIMILARITY
As done in Chapter 6, rewrite the momentum and energy equations in terms of
dimensionless parameters, with L as the characteristic length and u0 as a reference
velocity: 𝑥
𝑥 ∗≡
𝑦 𝑢 𝑣 𝑇 −𝑇 ∞
𝐿
𝑦 ∗≡ 𝑢∗≡ 𝑣 ∗≡ 𝑇 ∗≡
𝐿 𝑢𝑜 𝑢𝑜 𝑇 𝑠− 𝑇 ∞
2 can be written as:
Then, the momentum and energy equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 =𝑔 𝛽(𝑇 ∞ −𝑇 )+𝜐 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 Try!
𝜕𝑇 ∗ 𝜕𝑇 ∗ 1 𝜕 𝑇∗
2

𝜕 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑢∗ +𝑣∗ =
𝑢 +𝑣 =𝛼 2 𝜕 𝑥∗ 𝜕 𝑦 ∗ ℜ𝐿 Pr ❑ 𝜕 𝑦 ∗2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Choose the reference velocity u0 as u02 = gβ(Ts - T∞)L, so that the T* term becomes unity. Then,
. Define Grashof number, GrL as Re2, or:

15
GRASHOF NUMBER
Grashof number has been defined as:

It indicates ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous force acting on the fluid.

It plays important role in free convection, where NuL = f(GrL , Pr)

When forced and free convections are present, u∞ ≠ 0, and NuL = f(ReL, GrL , Pr).
Both forced and free conventions must be considered when GrL/ReL2 ≈ 1.
When GrL/ReL2 >> 1, then free convection is dominant, and NuL = f(GrL , Pr).
When GrL/ReL2 << 1, then forced convection is dominant, and NuL = f(ReL , Pr).
16
 9.4 LAMINAR FREE
CONVECTION ON A
VERTICAL SURFACE 17
 ISOTHERMAL SURFACE
For an isothermal vertical surface in an extensive quiescent
medium:
The set of governing equations must be solved with the following
boundary conditions:
y = 0; u = v= 0; T = Ts
y ∞; u 0; T T∞
Introduce non-dimensional parameters, to find similarity solution:

( )
1/ 4
𝑦 𝐺𝑟𝑥 ∗ 𝑇 −𝑇 ∞
𝜂≡ 𝑇 ≡
𝑥 4 𝑇 𝑠 −𝑇 ∞

Derive…
(pg. 546)
𝑓 ′′′+3 𝑓𝑓 −2( 𝑓 ′ {)} ^ {2} + 𝑇 ∗= Two o.d.e. Solve them by using boundary conditions, and
the numerical solutions have been obtained by Ostrach
𝑇 ∗+3 Pr {𝑓} 𝑇 ∗ ′= (1953) and shown on the figure in the next slide…
18
GRAPHICAL RESULTS
Numerical solutions of the momentum and energy equations previously derived have been obtained
by Ostrach, 1972 and have been plotted as below:

• Values of u and T at any x and y

may be obtained from these
figures.
• In Problems, usually the
thickness of the boundary layer is
taken at = 5 (see Problems 9.9
and 9.10, for example)

BASIC HEAT TRANSFER – FREE CONVECTION 19

Using Newton’s Law of Cooling for h, the local Nusselt number may be written as:

Using Fourier’s Law to obtain qs”, and expressing the surface temperature gradient in terms of η and T*, then:

Hence, the local Nusselt number is:

(Eq. 9.19)

The dimensionless temperature gradient at the surface is a function of the Prandtl

number g(Pr), as can be seen in Figure 9.4b, which has been numerically determined
with 0.5% error for 0 ≤ Pr ≤ ∞ as:

20
Using the equation for Nux and for local Grashof Number, Grx:

Then, the average convection coefficient for a surface of length L is:

Integrating, then:

Or substituting from Equation 9.19 for Nu with x = L, the average Nusselt number becomes:

The results are applicable for Ts > T∞, as well as for Ts < T∞.

21
9.5 THE EFFECTS OF
TURBULENCE
22
RAYLEIGH NUMBER
• In free convection boundary layer condition,
hydrodynamic instabilities may arise leading to
transition from laminar to turbulent.
• Transition from laminar to turbulent in a free convection
boundary layer depends on the relative magnitude of the
buoyancy and viscous forces in the fluid. It is customary
to correlate its occurrence in terms of Rayleigh number.
• For vertical plates, the critical Rayleigh number is:
Transition,
when Rax,c =
109.
• Free convection in turbulent condition will be presented
in the next section.
23
Try Example 9.1
 Heat Transfer II Starts

9.6 EMPIRICAL
CORRELATIONS: Note: Internal Free Convection

EXTERNAL FREE will be studied in Section 9.8

CONVECTION FLOWS 24
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS:
EXTERNAL (IMMERSED) FREE
CONVECTION FLOWS
Many correlations are available for external free convection cases:
Vertical Plate • The average Nusselt number correlations are in form of:

Horizontal Plate
Inclined Plate
Cylinder
Sphere
Parallel Plate
• Where the Rayleigh number is:
where Ra is based on the characteristic length L.
• Typically, n = ¼ for laminar & n = 1/3 for turbulent flow.
• In turbulent flow, is independent of L.
• All properties are evaluated at film temp.: Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2.
25
9.6.1 THE VERTICAL PLATE
Correlations for Free Convection on a Vertical Heated Flat Plate:
a. For an isothermal plate (constant Ts).
1. General Correlation: For laminar flow (104 ≤ RaL ≤ 109), C = 0.59 and n = ¼.
For turbulent flow (109 ≤ RaL ≤ 1013), C = 0.10 and n =1/3.
All properties are evaluated at the film temp, Tf = (Ts +T)/2.
2. Correlation for entire range of RaL by Churchill and Chu (1975):

(Eq. 9.26)

3. Slightly more accurate correlation but for laminar flow, or RaL < 109:

(Eq. 9.27)

26
b. For uniform heat flux condition (constant qs”):
• The temperature difference (Ts - T∞) vary (increasing) with x.
• Use previous equations for isothermal plate, with and RaL are
calculated in terms of ΔTL/2 = Ts(L/2) - T∞.
• If it is assumed that Nux Rax1/4 over the entire plate, then
or ΔT x 1/5, hence:

See Ref. 10 for more detail discussion.

For vertical cylinders of height L, use the same equations when:

Try Example 9.2 on glass door fire screen 27

9.6.2 INCLINED AND HORIZONAL PLATES
A. INCLINED PLATES
Cold plate: End views: For vertical plates: the gravitational and buoyancy forces are
aligned with or parallel to the plate’s surface.
For inclined plates: the buoyancy force has components normal
and parallel to the plate’s surface.

The x-component of the gravitational force is g.cos .

Hot plate:
For top surface of cold inclined plate and bottom surface of hot
inclined plate at 0 60o, replace g with g.cos , and use equations
for vertical surfaces (Eqn. 9.26 and 9.27):

For entire
range of RaL

More accurate
but for laminar
flow
No correlation for the opposite surfaces.
28
 B. HORIZONTAL PLATES
For horizontal plates with different shapes, use L = As/P as the characteristic length
and use the following correlations, where As = plate surface area (one side) and P is
Coldperimeter.
plate:

Hot plate:

Try Example 9.3

29
Upper surface Lower surface
9.6.3 THE LONG HORIZONTAL
CYLINDER
• For isothermal cylinder, Morgan (1975) suggested
the average Nusselt number as:

Where C and n are given in Table 9.1; and RaD

and are based on the cylinder’s diameter.

For wide range of Ra, Churchill and Chu (1975) suggested the average Nusselt number as:

Both equations provide the average Nusselt number over the entire circumference of an isothermal cylinder.
30
VARIATION OF NU IN A LONG HORIZONTAL
CYLINDER
• In the meantime, the local Nusselt number vary over the circumference of a cylinder.
• Variation of local Nu (Nu) over the surface of a cylinder:
• For a heated cylinder, Nuis influenced by
boundary layer starting at = 0 where Nuis
maximum and conclude at with formation of
plume ascending from the cylinder.

• For a cooled cylinder, boundary layer begins

at , where Nuis maximum, and the plume
descends from the cylinder.

Try Example 9.4 on a long aluminum rod being cooled. 31

9.6.4 SPHERES
Churchill (2002) suggested the following correlation for spheres with Pr 0.7 and RaD 1011.

As RaD gets closer to , = 2, as suggested in Eqns. 7.56 and 7.57.

32
SUMMARY OF FREE
CONVECTION
EMPIRICAL
CORRELATIONS

33
9.7 FREE CONVECTION
WITHIN PARALLEL
PLATE CHANNELS 34
FREE CONVECTION WITHIN
PARALLEL PLATE CHANNELS
• For vertical or inclined channels of parallel plates that are open to the ambient at opposite ends.
• Applications: fins and circuit boards.
• Surface thermal condition may be idealized as being isothermal
or isoflux and symmetrical () or asymmetrical ().
• For short channels and/or large spacings (small L/S):
independent boundary layer development occur at each surface
and conditions correspond to those for an isolated plate in an
infinite, quiescent medium.
• For large L/S, the boundary layers merge to yield a fully
developed condition as in Figure 9.9.
• If the channel is inclined, the buoyancy force will be normal and
parallel to the streamwise direction.

35
 9.7.1 VERTICAL CHANNELS ()
• For symmetrically heated, isothermal plates in air, Elenbaas (1942) suggested semi-empirical equation as:
Valid for air with:

Where:
and

• In the fully developed limit, S/L 0, then the equation reduces to:

• For adjoining isothermal (Ts,1) and insulated (q”s,2 = 0) plates:

(side 1 is isothermal, side 2 is adiabatic)

36
• For isoflux surfaces: and (L means at x = L where T is at max)

• For symmetry and isoflux surfaces, the fully developed limit is:

• For asymmetric isoflux conditions with one surface is

insulated (qs,2” = 0):
(L means at x = L where T is at max)

• Combining these equations for the fully developed limits; and for isothermal and isoflux conditions, respectively:
Isothermal: See pp. 566-567 on Sopt and Smax

Isoflux:

In each case, the fully developed and isolated plate limits correspond to
Ras (or Ra*s and Ras (or Ra*s) S/L respectively.

Fluid properties are evaluated at average temperature (Ts + T)/2 for isothermal surfaces, and at (Ts,L + T)/2 for
isoflux surfaces. 37
9.7.2 INCLINED CHANNELS
Azevedo and Sparrow (1985) suggested for symmetric isothermal plates and
isothermal-insulated plates inclined channels in water for , and Ras(S/L) > 200,
the correlation is (within 10% error):

Fluid properties are evaluated at Tm = (Ts + T)/2.

38
 9.8 EMPIRICAL • Rectangular Enclosure
CORRELATIONS: (Horizontal, Vertical &
Tilted)
ENCLOSURES (INTERNAL • Concentric Cylinders

FREE CONVECTION FLOWS) • Concentric Spheres

39
EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS:
ENCLOSURES
9.8.1 RECTANGULAR
For free convection CAVITIES
between a surface and an extensive fluid medium:
Rectangular Cavities: T1 > T2, and other walls are insulated.
Tilt angle, = 0o for horizontal cavity with bottom heating
= 90o for vertical cavity with sidewall heating
= 180o for horizontal cavity with top heating

The heat flux across the cavity:

40
 a. For horizontal cavity heated from below (= 0o):
• For H/L, w/L and RaL < 1708: no advection. Only conduction (and radiation
for gas enclosure).
• For RaL = 1708 – 5x104: fluid motion consists of regularly spaced roll cells.
• For RaL 5x104: the cells breakdown and the fluid motion evolves through
many patterns before becoming turbulent.

Note:
• Convective coefficient for the horizontal cavity heated from below (= 0o),
may be obtained as (Globe and Dropkin, 1959):

Fluid properties are evaluated at Tm = (T1 + T)/2.

b. For horizontal cavity heated from top (= 180o): without radiation, heat transfer from top
to the bottom surface is exclusively by conduction (NuL = 1), irrespective the value of RaL.
41
c. For vertical rectangular cavity (= 90o), the vertical surfaces are heated
and cooled, while the horizontal surfaces are adiabatic.
• The fluid flow is characterized by a recirculating or cellular flow for
which fluid ascend along the hot wall and descend along the cold wall.
• For small Ra 103, the buoyancy driven flow is weak, and in the absence
of radiation, heat transfer is primarily by conduction. NuL = 1.
• For larger Ra, the cellular flow intensifies and become concentrated in
thin boundary layer adjoining the side walls, and the core becomes
stagnant.

42
For vertical rectangular cavities:
For aspect ratios in the range For larger aspect ratios (H/L > 10),
of: 1 : then: then:

Fluid properties are evaluated at Tm = (T1 + T)/2.

43
d. For tilted surfaces, such as for flat plate solar collectors (Holande et al., 1976):
• The transition from roll structure to cellular structure
occur at a critical tilt angle, * as shown in Table 9.4:

• For large aspect ratios, (H/L) and

• Notation: If in […]. is negative, set it as zero.
• It means that if Ra < RaL,c =1708/cos , then there
is no flow in the cavity.

• For small aspect ratio, (H/L) and , Catton (1978) says that:

• Beyond the critical tilt angle (), for all Ayyaswamy and Catton (1978) for all aspect ratios:

44
9.8.2 CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS
For a long horizontal concentric cylinders:
• The flow looks like in the Figure if Ti > To and reversed if Ti < To.
• The heat transfer rate between 2 cylinders with length L is (see Eq. 3.22):

Where (for 0.7 :

(keff = k if keff/k
< 1)

Fluid properties are evaluated at Tm = (Ti + T)/2. 45

9.8.3 CONCENTRIC SPHERES
For concentric spheres, the heat transfer is (Raithby and Hollands,
1975):

(keff = k if
The effective thermal conductivity is: keff/k < 1)

The length scale in Ra:

Valid when 0.7 , and Ras .

Properties are evaluated at: Tm = (Ti + T)/2.
Try Example 9.5 for a steam tube with a a concentric radiation shield
46
9.9 COMBINED FREE
AND FORCED
CONVECTIONS 47
COMBINED FREE AND
FORCED CONVECTIONS
If (, then Forced Convection is dominant.
If ( , then Free Convection is dominant.
If ( , then Free and Forced Convections are combined.

Three special cases for buoyancy-induced motion and forced motion that can occur:
a. Both are in the same direction (assisting flow),
b. Both are in the opposite direction (opposing flows), and
c. Both are in perpendicular directions (transverse flow)
The mixed convection heat transfer correlation can be reduced to:
F: forced convection, +: assisting and transverse flows,
N: natural convection -: opposing flow
The value of n = 3 in general, n = 7/2 for transverse flows with horizontal plates,
n = 4 for transverse flows with cylinders or spheres.
48
9.10 CONVECTION
MASS TRANSFER
49
 FREE CONVECTION MASS
•TRANSFER
The buoyancy term on the right side of Eq. 9.2 is due to the density variations in the fluid
which may arise from species concentration gradients. Therefore, the more general
equation for Eq. 9.10 is:
(analogue to Eq. 9.10)

• If there are no temperature gradient, motion may still be induced by spatial variation in the
species composition, therefore by similarity: ShL = f (GrL , Sc).
• The heat and mass transfer analogy can be used. If species A is evaporating or sublimating
from a vertical surface into a quiescent ambient fluid B, then, analogy to Eq. 9.24, with GrL
as written above:
(analogue to Eq. 9.24)

• If molecular weight of species A is less than that of B, then , and the buoyancy-induces
flow is upward. If the opposite is true, then and the flow is descending.
• The above analogy may only be applied for isothermal conditions. 50
• If both gradients of temperature and species concentrations occur, heat and mass
transfer will occur concurrently by natural convection, then and , where is due to
both temperature and concentration variations.
• As first approximation, existing correlations of the form and may be used to
determine the convection coefficients, so long as the value of is calculated by including
the effects of both temperature and concentration variations on and and Le = Pr/Sc 1.
• In a binary mixture of species A and B, the surface and free stream densities are
defined as: and , respectively, where the species densities depend on the surface and
free stream temperatures.
• The average density across the boundary layers is
• If Le is much less or much more than 1, other references must be consulted.

51
9.11 SUMMARY
52
COMPREHE
NSION
QUESTIONS

53
The original slides were taken from the slides given by Bergman’s book: Bergman, T.
L., A. S. Lavine, F. P. Incropera and D. P. DeWitt, “Introduction to Heat Transfer”, 6th
Ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2011. They were adopted by I Made Astina and rewritten by
Panji Prawisudha. Then the slides were enhanced and finalized by T. A. Fauzi
Soelaiman for the sole purpose of lecturing of Heat Transfer course, at the Mechanical
Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the
Institut Teknologi Bandung during Semester 1 2018-2019. The slides were further
modified to accommodate the new Curriculum 2019 in Semester 1 2019-2020. Errors
may still exist in these slides. Please refer to the original textbook for the correct ones
and inform me through email at: tafauzi@yahoo.com. The slides should not be used
for other purposes since no copyright has been obtained from John Wiley & Sons.
Thank you.

TERIMA KASIH
MS3220 TEAM