Disaster Readiness

and Risk Reduction

Chapter 8
Fire Hazards
Learning Objectives
To describe fire
To enumerate the components of the fire
tetrahedron
To recognize the different stages of fire
To enumerate the types and explain the causes
of fires
To identify the effects of fire
To demonstrate the different ways of preventing
and extinguishing fires
Section 8.1
Fire Tetrahedron
What Is Fire?
 Fire is a part of a very rapid, and usually persistent
chemical reaction called oxidation, a familiar process
which involves the combination of oxygen and
another substance.
 Oxidation is also responsible for the brown color that
forms on the face of an apple or a potato a few
minutes after it has been cut, the tarnishing of silver
utensils and jewelry, and the corrosion of iron.
 Fire is set apart from other oxidation processes by
its rate due to the fact that it takes place very fast
and produces light (flame), heat, sound, smoke, and
many other by-products.
Fire Tetrahedron
The fire tetrahedron is a visual aid that reminds us of
the four important ingredients required to initiate and
sustain fire, namely:
1) heat;
2) fuel
3) an oxidizing agent; and
4) an uninhibited chemical reaction.
Fire Tetrahedron
On Heat
 Heat is energy that flows from an object of high
temperature to an object of low temperature. It
should be of an amount which is enough to liberate
the vapor from the solid and liquid forms of fuel and
cause ignition.
 There are three main ways in which heat can be
transferred:
 Convection ‒ involves direct contact of substances,
typically solids, for heat to be transferred
 Conduction ‒ involves the flow of liquids and gases in
the transfer of heat
 Radiation ‒ a manner of heat transfer that involves only
electromagnetic waves, like sunlight, or in the case of
fire—flame—and does not require direct contact or a
liquid or gas for heat to be transferred
On Fuel
 Fuel is any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance that
can be burned.
 For combustion to take place, fuels must first be
converted into the gaseous state because combustion
tactually takes place just above the solid or liquid fuel
where vapors are escaping.
 Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of solid fuels
which produces gas fuel through the application of
heat.
 Vaporization is the production of fuel gases from
liquid fuels.
 Unlike solid and liquid fuels, gaseous fuels ignite and
burn readily and do not require the application of
additional heat before combustion which is why it is
harder to manage and extinguish gas fuel fires.
On Oxidizing Agent
 An oxidizing agent is an element or a compound
which releases oxygen or other oxidizers during a
chemical reaction.
 The most common oxidizing agent is oxygen.
 An oxidizing agent itself does not burn; rather it
supports combustion when combined with a fuel.
 Burning could actually occur in the absence of
oxygen as long other oxidizing agents are present.
 Examples of other oxidizing agents are bromates,
bromine, chlorates, chlorine, fluorine, iodine,
nitrates, nitric acid, nitrites, perchlorates, peroxides,
and permanganates.
On an Uninhibited Chemical
Chain Reaction
 Combustion or burning—an exothermic reaction—
becomes self-sustained because the heat given o
during combustion is used again to heat the fuel and
maintain the burning.
 The initial ignition source is no longer necessary and
the fire continues unless it becomes deprived of one
of the main elements.
 Clean agent halon replacements are used to break
this chain reaction.
Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students identify

specific fire hazards or causes of res in different
settings by taking a look at pictures of different parts of
houses (bedroom, kitchen, garage, basement/stock
room, etc.), schools, workplaces, and even outdoors.
Stages of Fire
1. Ignition (Incipient) Stage
At this stage, all four requirements for a fire have
been combined. The fire is very small that it can still be
controlled by a portable fire extinguisher or small hose
line, or it may even go out on its own. Recognizing this
stage of a fire is crucial in successfully extinguishing
or escaping the fire before it causes destruction.
Stages of Fire
2. Growth Stage
The growth stage of a fire is the shortest of the four
stages. It takes place when the heat release rate increases
as result of the burning of additional fuel. The rate of growth
of a fire is dependent on the amount of available oxygen;
enhanced air circulation promotes fire growth. More
surfaces are ignited by means of convection and radiation.
During this stage, there may occur a rollover, which
happens when gases rise to the ceiling and cause fire to
spread out horizontally in a “rolling” manner, burning only
gases and not any other material.
If heat continues to build, this may lead to a
flashover, which is the non-explosive, abrupt spread of fire
through the air to almost all exposed combustible objects
due to the burning of vapors of objects which have reached
their auto-ignition temperature.
Stages of Fire
3. Fully-developed Fire Stage
During this stage, fire has consumed almost all
of the available combustible materials. Oxygen is being
consumed rapidly and maximum temperatures are
reached.
Stages of Fire
4. Decay Stage
The decay stage, which lasts the longest, takes
place when oxygen and fuel begins to diminish. The fire
consumes the remaining fuel. During this stage, the
temperature decreases significantly and the fire
becomes weaker. One must not assume that the fire
situation is already under control because smoldering
fire (weak re without any flame) may start a new fire if
it is not entirely extinguished. There is also the
possibility that backdraft may occur.
Section Assessment
1. Can man manage without fires?
2. Enumerate the components of the fire tetrahedron.
3. Explain the role of each component of the
tetrahedron in combustion.
4. What are the different stages of a fire? Why is it
important to recognize at what stage a fire is?
5. Why do fires become uncontrollable? How can we
prevent fire damage?
Section 8.2
Wild Fires
What Is a Wildfire?
 A wildfire is any natural or anthropogenic-caused
uncontrolled re in remote areas where there is
extensive combustible vegetation and/or organic
material like forests, grasslands, shrublands,
brushlands, scrublands, and peatlands.
 A wildfire can spread out from the source of ignition
very quickly and can change direction unexpectedly.
 Strong winds enable wildfires to grow very large
because of the continuous supply of oxygen and
because they can blow burning debris which may
trigger fires in other places.
 Wildfires range in size from a few square meters to
hundreds of square kilometers.
Types of Wildfires
• Ground fires involve burning of buried decomposed
organic matter and extensive tree root systems.

• Surface fires, the most common type, involve the

burning of fuel scattered on the surface like fallen
leaves, branches, bark, stems, tree cuttings, and
dried-up low-lying vegetation like shrubs and
grasses.

• Crown fires burn tree canopies, other higher parts of

trees, and suspended materials like vines.
Ladder Fuels
Ladder fuels are any combustible material found
between the ground and the tree tops which allow fire
to climb up all the way to the canopies, including small
trees, tall grasses, tree branches, downed trees, vines,
ferns, and other plants that span the length of the tree
trunks.
Natural Causes of Wildfires
• Many wildfires are triggered by the tremendous heat
associated with lightning strikes.
• Lava flows during volcanic eruptions ignite almost
anything that it comes into contact with and can
trigger wildfires.
• Wildfires can also occur due to spontaneous
combustion of highly combustible fuels in forests,
due to extremely hot and dry weather.
• Rockfalls can also trigger wildfires because of the
sparks caused by friction between rock surfaces or
rocks and wood.
Man-made Causes of Wildfires
• Kaingin or the slash-and-burn method of clearing
land

• Charcoal production

• Accidental fires caused by, among others, leaving

lighted cigarettes or unextinguished or improperly
extinguished bonfires in campsites within the forest
Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students analyze

data on causes of forest res in the Philippines.
Controlling and Preventing Wildfires
• A key step to control the occurrence of wildfires is to
see to it that forests are well-maintained to minimize
the amount of unwanted flammable substances and
to break the vertical and horizontal continuity of
fuels.
• Grazing can be done to reduce fuel like brushes and
to prevent fires from starting and spreading.
• Sanitation or the continuous removal of dead/dried-
up/sick trees
• Thinning or the removal of less developed and dying
trees done every seven to ten years while
maintaining the normal density level of forests
Controlling and Preventing Wildfires
• Pruning or the removal of lower branches of a tree
reaching one-third of its height, which may reach as
high as 4 meters particularly in recreation areas and
along trails where there is a higher risk for fires
• Removal of cuttings and other tree waste material
• Community participation in fire prevention as fire
volunteers and in publicity and education efforts
• Passing and enforcing legislation which requires
maintenance of forests and imposes penalties for
commission of acts which are harmful to forests
• Several infrastructure and implements could also be
provided in order to respond quickly and effectively in
the event of a fire, such as: access roads, water
supply facilities, manned watchtowers, and
signposting
Section Assessment
1. Why do wildfires occur mostly if not entirely during
the first half of the year?
2. Why wildfires do not usually occur at times when
lightning is prevalent?
3. How does kaingin harm land areas where it is
employed? What particular type(s) of wildfires are
caused by the kaingin system?
4. List and describe five ways by which you can help
prevent forest fires.
Section 8.3
Building Fires
(with Emphasis on Wildfires)
Causes of Building Fires
• Unattended cooking equipment and other household
fire sources

• Electrical appliances and wiring problems

• Haphazardly stored flammable liquids and other

easily combustible materials

• Fireworks and firecrackers

• Arson
Fire Types and How to
Extinguish Them
• Class A fires involve fuel such as cloth, wood, paper,
plastics, rubber, and trash. Making the fuel cool
below ignition temperature can extinguish the fire.
How to Extinguish: For this type of fire, simply
using water can put out the fire.
Fire Types and How to
Extinguish Them
• Class B fires involve combustible liquid fuel such as
alcohols, gasoline, lacquers, oil-based paint,
petroleum oil and grease, solvents; and combustible
gas fuel such as propane and butane.
How to Extinguish: This type of fire can be
extinguished by forming a blockade between
oxygen and the fuel, for instance, by applying a layer
of foam.
Fire Types and How to
Extinguish Them
• Class C fires involve fuel that belong to either class A
or B but which also involve powered electrical
equipment like home appliances, motors, and
transformers.
How to Extinguish: This type of fire requires
knowledge of special techniques and agents
(usually carbon dioxide or dry chemical agents)
to be extinguished. Because of the involvement
of electricity, extinguishing this fire type by water
is very dangerous and out of the question.
Fire Types and How to
Extinguish Them
• Class D fires involve combustible metals such as
aluminum, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,
titanium, and zirconium, most of which are usually
contained in automobiles.
How to Extinguish: Salt-based special powders
and clean dry sand are effective in extinguishing
such fires.
Fire Types and How to
Extinguish Them
• Class K fires involve fuels such as cooking oils and
greases (animal-and vegetable-fat derived).
How to Extinguish: Only a fully-protected
firefighter should deal with such fires.
Choosing Fire Extinguishers
Choosing Fire Extinguishers
Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students identify

appropriate type of re extinguisher to use for different
types of building fire.
Fire Extinguisher Use

A helpful mnemonic code on how to use a re

extinguisher during an emergency is: PASS!

Pull the pin;

Aim the extinguisher’s hose/nozzle at the base of the
fire from a safe distance;
Squeeze the lever to dispense the extinguishing agent;
and
Sweep the hose/nozzle sideways until the fire is
completely extinguished.
Section Assessment
1. Explain why fires are considered natural hazards.
2. What is the most common cause of building fires in
the Philippines? Explain why.
3. In what fire situations can you not use water to
extinguish a building fire?
4. What is the most appropriate type of fire
extinguisher in your house kitchen? Explain.
5. Name the three most basic measures in preventing
fires and avoiding casualties during fires in the
following:
a) at home;
b) in informal settlements; and
c) in factories.