‫الكترونيات بيوطبية (‪)2‬‬

‫‪BBM322- Biomedical instrumentation II‬‬

‫إعداد د‪ .‬نعمان النجار‬

Text Book -John G. Webster - Medical
Instrumentation: Application and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, 4rd Edition, 2010
Handout lectures

Note –These lectures taken from text book and different internet resources and
modified by Dr. Noman AL Naggar

UST, Sana’a 2016

 BBM322- Biomedical instrumentation II
Chapter 1: Introduction in Biomedical sensors

Plan
Introduction & concepts_
Biomedical Sensor technology_
Sensor types_
Measurements systems_
Sensor Error Sources_
Sensor Terminology and What’s requirements to Sensors_

3-Slide
 Biomedical sensors
Introduction - concept
A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a •
physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an
.observer or by an today mostly electronic instrument
Sensor / Transducer -Integrated with other parts to “read” out the signal (electrically, •
optically, chemically)
Some are used in vivo to perform continuous, invasive or non-invasive •
monitoring of critical physiological variables
pressure, flow, concentration of gas –
Some are used in vitro to help clinicians in various diagnostic •
procedures
electrolytes, enzymes, metabolites in blood –
concept
in vivo: inside a living body (human or animal) •
ex vivo: outside the living body •
in vitro: in a test tube •
in situ: right in the place where reactions happen (could be in the cells, tissue, test • 4
 Transducers
Transducer
a device that converts a primary form of energy into a-
corresponding signal with a different energy form
Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
.chemical, etc
take form of a sensor or an actuator-
Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus-
”acquires information from the “real world-
Actuator (e.g., heater)
a device that generates a signal or stimulus-

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 5.Sensors p

 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
General Electronic Sensor
primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical
signal
secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or
digital values
real primary analog secondary usable
world transducer signal transducer values

sensor

Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
)measurand(
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 6.Sensors p

 Example Electronic Sensor Systems
Components vary with application
digital sensor within an instrument
microcontroller sensor µC keypad
signal timing signal timing
sensor memory display
data storage handheld instrument

analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface e.g., RS232
sensor A/D, communication PC
signal processing
comm. card
multiple sensors displayed over internet

internet

sensor sensor bus sensor bus

sensor
processor PC processor
.comm .comm
comm. card

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 7.Sensors p

 Primary Transducers
Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
thermocouple: temperature difference
compass (magnetic): direction
Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
DNA arrays: match DNA sequences

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 8.Sensors p

 Example Primary Transducers
Light Sensor
photoconductor
light  R

photodiode
light  I

membrane pressure sensor

resistive (pressure  R)
capacitive (pressure  C)

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 9.Sensors p

 Biomedical Sensor
Developing of biomedical sensor
Configuration -1
Supply of power -2
Individual sensing of variables -3
Processing of different signals -4
Interconnection to the other modules in the system -5
Manufacturing -6

Biomedical Sensor technology

:Use of microelectronics
.Electronic components are incorporated into sensors for signal processing and conversion _
:Use of Optical devices
Calorimetry, spectrophotometry principles are used to develop biomedical sensors based on _
.optoelectronic systems

10-Slide
 Biomedical Sensor technology
The Role of Sensors in BME

Biomedical Biomechanics Cytotechnology Bioinformatics

Electronics and Histological
Engineering
Detection Delivering

MRI, CT, X Ray, ECG, ,Light, Current, Heat

EEG, EMG, Heart Ultrasound, et al
Sound, Temperature,
Blood Pressure,
Image Processing,
Signal Processing

Sensors
 Biomedical Sensor technology
Trends in biomedical sensors

:Key technologies for miniaturization of biomedical sensors

realization of biochips: microfluidics, semiconductor fabrication processes, -
microelectro mechanical systems (MEMS)
:Equally important are
the development of more stable and effective biomolecules used for recognition; search -
for new target analytes that are of diagnostic and/or biological significance

12-Slide
Signal Acquisition
Medical Instrumentation typically entails
monitoring a signal off the body which is
analog, converting it to an electrical
signal, and digitizing it to be analyzed by
.the computer
 Signal Acquisition
Physiological output Signals
Three types of output signal
:Self-generating (active) transducers-1
The electrical signal output of –
transducer is generated from another
.form of input energy

:Modulating (passive) transducer-2

The input signal energy of –
transducer is used to modulate the
electrical energy flow from the power
.supply to the transducer output

:Tandem transducers-3
The original input signal energy is –
converted to a final output of electrical
energy through two or three effects or
.conversions in tandem 14-Slide
Signal Acquisition

15
:Types of Sensors
Electrodes: acquire an electrical signal

Transducers: acquire a non-electrical

signal (force, pressure, temp etc) and
converts it to an electrical signal
17
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
:The transducers can be classified in many ways, such as
By the process used to convert the energy into an electrical )i(
:signal
:For this, transducers can be categorized as
Active Transducers .1
a transducer that converts one form of energy directly into another. For _
example: photovoltaic cell in which light energy is converted into electrical
.energy
Passive Transducers .2
a transducer that requires energy to be translate changes due to the measured ._
For example: a variable resistance placed in a bridge in which the voltage at the
.output of the circuit reflects the physical variable
:By the principles used )ii(
.For example: variable resistance devices and optical fiber transducers

By application for measuring a specific physiological )iii(

:variable
 General Types of Sensors
General categories are Physical , Electrical, Chemical
Resistor Sensors .1
Capacitor Sensors .2
Inductor Sensors .3
Potential Transformer Sensors .4
Piezoelectric Transducers .5
Thermoelectric Sensors .6
Optical Sensor .7
Chemical Sensors, Biological Sensors .8
Accelerometers .9
Touch Screen .10
 Measurements systems
Physical Measurements are used in biomedical sensors
Physical Quantities for Measurement
Displacement measurement •
Resistive sensors: Potentiometers, Strain gages, and Bridge circuit –
Inductive sensors: Self-inductance, Mutual inductance, and Differential transformer –
(LVDT)
Capacitive sensors –
Piezoelectric sensors: Piezoelectric effect –
Temperature measurement •
Thermocouples: Thermoelectric effect (Discovered by Seebeck in 1821), Peltier effect, –
,Thomson effect
Three empirical thermocouples laws: Homogeneous circuits, Intermediate metals, •
Successive (Intermediate temperature)
Thermistors –
Radiation thermometry –
Fiber-optic temperature sensor –

20-Slide
 Measurements systems
Optical Measurements are used in biomedical sensors
Optical Measurement
.Optical systems are widely used in medical diagnosis, especially in clinical-chemistry lab –
Application example: Blood or tissue sample analysis, oxygen saturation of hemoglobin, –
.cardiac output
Radiation sources: Tungsten lamp, Arc discharges, LEDs, LASERS –

: Figure
a) General block diagram of an optical
.instrument
b) Highest efficiency is obtained by
using an intense lamp, lenses to gather
and focus the light on the sample in the
.cuvette, and a sensitive detector
c) Solidstate lamps and detectors may
.simplify the system

21-Slide
 Measurements systems
Optical Measurements are used in biomedical sensors

Light sources and detectors

Sources Detectors
Incandescent bulb  Thermal detector (pyroelectric) 
Light emitting diode (LED) 
Photodiode 
Gas and solid state lasers 
Phototransistor 
Arc lamp 
Charge-coupled device (CCD) 
Fluorescent source 
Photoconductive cell 
Photomultiplier tube 

22
 Measurements systems
Optical Measurements are used in biomedical sensors

Absorption/Fluorescence
Different dyes show peaks of different values at different
concentrations when the absorbance or excitation is plotted against
.wavelength
Phenol Red is a pH sensitive reversible dye whose relative
absorbance (indicated by ratio of green and red light transmitted) is
.used to measure pH
.HPTS is an irreversible fluorescent dye used to measure pH
Similarly, there are fluorescent dyes which can be used to measure
.O2 and CO2 levels

23-Slide
 Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers
sensor µC keypad
signal timing
sensor memory display
:Analog instrument

many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D

bit to 12-bit common-8
many have multi-channel A/D inputs
:Digital
serial I/O
use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze
synchronous (with clock)
.must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc
asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than data
.must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol, etc
frequency encoded
use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 24.Sensors p

Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers

Asynchronous transmission - each byte is framed by a

start and one or more stop bits. The first bit on the
. wire is the start bit followed by the least

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 25.Sensors p

 Connecting Smart Sensors to PC/Network
Smart sensor” = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication “
e.g., combining a “dumb sensor” and a microcontroller
Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
PC card with analog and digital I/O
interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
Communication Links Common for Sensors
.asynchronous serial comm
universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
receive line + 1 transmit line. nodes must match baud rate & protocol 1
RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
can buy a chip to convert from UART to RS232
.synchronous serial comm
serial peripheral interface (SPI)
clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable 1
I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus
…designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor sys

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 26.Sensors p

 Sensor Error Sources
:Error
Difference between measured value and
.true value
 Sensor Error Sources
:Categories of Sensor Errors 5
:Insertion Error-1
Error occurring when inserting a sensor
:Application Error -2
Errors caused by Operator
:Characteristic Error -3
Errors inherent to Device
:Dynamic Error -4
Most instruments are calibrated in static conditions if you are reading a thermistor
it takes time to change its value. If you read this value to quickly an error will
.result
:Environmental Error -5
Errors caused by environment
heat, humidity
Sensor Terminology and What’s requirements to
Sensors
Sensitivity .1
Accuracy .2
Operational Range .3
Response Time .4
Resolution .5
Reproducibility .6
 :Sensor Terminology
:Sensitivity .1
;Slope of output characteristic curve Δy/ Δx
Minimum input of physical parameter will create a
detectable output change
Blood pressure transducer may have a sensitivity of 10
mV/V/mmHg so you will see a 10 mV change for every
.V or mmHg applied to the system
.Sensitivity cont

Output Output

Input Input

Which is more sensitive? The left side one

because you’ll have a larger change in y for a
given change in x
:Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity Error = Departure from ideal slope of
a characteristic curve Ideal Curve
Output

Input

Sensitivity Error
The pressure transducer discussed above may have an actual sensitivity
.of 7.8 mV/V/mm Hg instead of 10 mV/V/mm Hg
 :Sensor Terminology
Range = Maximum and Minimum values of applied
.parameter that can be measured
If an instrument can read up to 200
mmHg and the actual reading is 250
mmHg then you have exceeded the
.range of the instrument
 :Sensor Terminology
Dynamic Range: total range of sensor for minimum to
maximum. if your instrument can measure from -10V to
+10 V your dynamic range is 20V
Precision = Degree of reproducibility denoted as the
range of one standard deviation σ
Resolution = smallest detectable incremental change of
input parameter that can be detected
What’s requirements to Sensors
-2
Accuracy Sensor Terminology

Accuracy = maximum difference that will exist

between the actual value and the indicated value
of the sensor

Xi Xo
 What’s requirements to Sensors
Offset Error -3 Sensor Terminology

Offset error = output that will exist when it

should be zero
The characteristic curve had the same sensitive
slope but had a y intercept

Output Output
Input Input
Offset Error
Zero offset error
The difference between the actual output value and the specified
.output value under some particular set of conditions
 What’s requirements to Sensors
Linearity -4 Sensor Terminology

Linearity = Extent to which actual measure

curved or calibration curve departs from
.ideal curve
 What’s requirements to Sensors
Linearity -4 Sensor Terminology
Nonlinearity (%) = (Din(Max) / INfs) * 100%
Nonlinearity is percentage of nonlinearity
Din(max) = maximum input deviation
INfs = maximum full-scale input

Full Scale Input eal r e

Id as u
Me
Output Din(Max)

Input
 What’s requirements to Sensors
Hysteresis -5 Sensor Terminology
Hysteresis = measurement of how sensor changes
.with input parameter based on direction of change

A transducer should be capable of following the

changes of the input parameter regardless of which
direction the change is made
 -What’s
5 requirements to Sensors
Hysteresis Sensor Terminology

.The value B can be represented by 2 values of F(x), F1 and F2

.If you are at point P then you reach B by the value F2
.If you are at point Q then you reach B by value of F1

Output = F(x)
P
F2
F1 Input = x
B
Q
 What’s requirements to Sensors
Response Time -6 Sensor Terminology

Response Time: Time required for a sensor output to

change from previous state to final settle value within a
tolerance band of correct new value denoted in red can
be different in rising and decaying directions

F(t) Tresponse Tolerance Band

100%
70% Rising Response Time

Ton Time
 ResponseWhat’s
-6 requirements to Sensors
Time Sensor Terminology

Time Constant: Depending on the source is defined as

the amount of time to reach 0% to 70% of final value.
Typically denoted for capacitors as T = RC (Resistance *
Capacitance) denoted in Blue

F(t) Tresponse Tolerance Band

100%
70% Rising Response Time

Ton Time
 Dynamic-7
Linearity Sensor Terminology
Measure of a sensor’s ability to follow rapid changes in the input
parameters. Difference between solid and dashed curves is the non-
.linearity as depicted by the higher order x terms
Where F(X) is the output signal, while the X terms represent the input
.parameter and its harmonics, and K is an offset constant
F(x)* = ax + bx2+cxK4+ . . . +K F(x)* = ax + bx3+cxK5+ . . . +K
x + x +
Output = m Output = m
( x) ( x)
F(x) F F(x) F

K K
Input X Input X
Frequency Response of Ideal and Practical System
In Ideal: When you look at the frequency response of an
.instrument, ideally you want a wideband flat frequency response

Av Av = Vo/Vi
1.0

Frequency (w) radians per second

Frequency Response of Ideal and Practical System

In practice, you have attenuation of lower

.and higher frequencies

Av Av = Vo/Vi
1.0
0.707

FL FH
Frequency (w) radians per second
Examples of Filters
Ideal Filter has sharp cutoffs and a flat pass
band
Most filters attenuate upper and lower
frequencies
Other filters attenuate upper and lower
frequencies and are not flat in the pass
band
 Sensor Calibration
Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g.,
temperature
Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter
analog signal conditioning
7.000

digital calibration
6.000

,T = a + bV +cV2
5.000
1001
1010
;T= temperature; V=sensor voltage

Frequency (MHz)
4.000
1001

a,b,c = calibration coefficients

1101
3.000
1110

Compensation
1111
2.000

remove secondary sensitivities 1.000

must have sensitivities characterized

0.000
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (C)

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason 47.Sensors p

 References
Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, edited by John G. Webster .1
Chemical sensors and biosensors, by Brian R. Eggins .2
Sensors in Biomedical Applications: Fundamentals, Technology & Applications, .3
by Gábor Harsányi – Ch7: Biosensors
http://www.diabetesmonitor.com/meters.htm#fcnim .4
Biomolecular sensors, edited by Electra Gizeli & Christopher R. Lowe .5
Biomedical Sensors, Dr. James A. Smith .6
Chapter 6 in, Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology By Joseph .7
Carr and John Brown

48-Slide
48.Sensors p