Advanced

Higher Maths
Unit 2
 Unit 2:

PROOFS AND ELEMENTAL NUMBER THEORY

FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION
FURTHER INTEGRATION
COMPLEX NUMBERS
SEQUENCES AND SERIES
PROOFS AND
ELEMENTAL
NUMBER TH
EORY
By considering the factors of 32n – 1, prove that 32n + 7 is always divisible by 8
where n ∈ N.
32n – 1 = (3n – 1)(3n + 1)
If n is even, n=2k, such that k ∈ W:
⇒ 3n – 1 = 32k – 1 = (3k – 1)(3k + 1). Since 3k is odd, each of these two factors is
even thus product is divisible by 4.

⇒ 32n – 1 = (3k - 1)(3k + 1)(32k + 1). Since 32k is also odd, each of these three
factors are even, and so product is divisible by 8.
ii) If n is odd, n = 2k+1, such that k ∈ W:

(3n + 1) = 3(2k+1) + 1 = (3(2k) ) + 1 = ((4 -1) . 3(2k) ) + 1

= 4. 3(2k) - 3(2k) + 1 = 4. 3(2k) - [3(2k) - 1] = 4. 3(2k) – (3k - 1)(3k + 1)

Since both the terms 4. 3(2k) and (3k - 1)(3k + 1) are divisible by 4, (3n + 1) is also
divisible by 4.

⇒ 32n – 1 = (3(2k+1) – 1) [ 4. 3(2k) – (3k - 1)(3k + 1) ] is divisible by 8.

Prove that is irrational using the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.
Assume ∈ Q.
∈ Q ⇒ = , where a, b ∈ Z.
⇒ a2 =2b2. Let 2, p1, p2, p3, …. pr be the list of distinct prime factors of a and b. Then a
and b can be expressed as ( …. ) and ( …. ) respectively where k i, li ∈ W.
a2 =2b2 ⇒ ( …. )2 = 2( …. )2
⇒ …. = ….
By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, these prime factorisations
must be the same. In particular, the factors of 2 must be identical.
=
⇒1=
⇒ an even number is odd: contradiction
Thus ∉ Q.
{a, b, c} is a Pythagorean triple (i.e. c2 = a2 + b2). Prove that, if a and b
have a common factor d, then c has a factor d.

Let a = md, and b = nd, where d, m, n ∈ N.

a2 + b2 = (md)2 + (nd)2 = m2d2 + n2d2

= d2(m2 + n2)
c=
c=

c=d
A. For n ∈ N, prove that 2n – 1 is never a square number.
B. Prove that 2n – 1 is never a cube nor any higher power, for n > 1.

A) 2n – 1= (20.5n – 1)(20.5n + 1)
Let n be even, such that n=2k, k ∈ N:
⇒ 2n – 1= 22k – 1 = (2k – 1)(2k + 1)
Since 2k is even, both (2k – 1) and (2k + 1) are distinct, odd numbers, and
therefore their product is not square.
Let n be odd, such that n=2k+1, k ∈ N:
⇒ 2n – 1= 22k+1 – 1 = (2k+0.5 – 1)(2k+0.5 + 1)
Since 2k+0.5 = 2k is irrational, both (2k+0.5 – 1) and (2k+0.5 + 1)
are distinct, irrational numbers. Since all square roots of
natural numbers, other than of perfect squares, are irrational,
the product of (2k+0.5 – 1) and (2k+0.5 + 1) is not square.
B) Let 2n – 1 = m3, then 2n = m3 + 1 = (m +1)(m2 – m +1)

Then both (m +1) and (m2 - m +1) are powers of 2.

But (m2 – m +1) is odd, therefore (m2 – m +1) = 20 = 1.

⇒ m2 – m = 0
⇒ m = 0 or 1

⇒ m3 = 0, or 1.
And mn = 0, or 1.
However, for n ∈ N, n > 1, the minimum value of 2n – 1 = 22 – 1 = 3

⇒ 2n – 1 is never a cube nor any higher power, for n > 1.

 1
Prove by induction that for all integers, n ≥ 1, 2  5  8  ...  (3n  1)  n(3n  1).
2
Try for n = 3: Try for n = k+1:
*This is an arithmetic series with a common difference of 3* LHS:
LHS: 2 + 5 + 8 = 15 2 + 5 + 8 + … + (3k – 1) + (3k+2)
RHS: (3)(3(3) + 1) = k(3k + 1) + (3k+2)
= (30) = k2 + k + 2
= 15 = (3k2 + 7k + 4)
⇒ TRUE FOR n = 3. = (k + 1)(3k+4)
= (k+1)(3(k+1)+1)
Assume true for n = k: = n(3n+ 1) = RHS
2 + 5 + 8 + … + (3k – 1) = k(3k + 1) ⇒ true for n = k+1.
For each of the following statements, decide whether it is true or false and prove your conclusion.

A) For all natural numbers m, if m2 is divisible by 4 then m is divisible by 4.

B) The cube of any odd integer p plus the square of any even integer q is always odd.

A) Counter example: let m = 2. m2 = 22 = 4, which is divisible by 4, but 2 is not divisible by 4.

⇒ STATEMENT A IS FALSE.
B) Let p = (2k + 1), and let q = 2m; k, m ∊ N. p3 + k2 = (2k + 1)3 + (2m)2 = 8k3 +12k2 + 6k + 4m2 + 1
= 2(4k3 +6k2 + 3k + 2m2 ) + 1⇒ An even plus odd term is an odd term ⇒ STATEMENT B IS TRUE.
For all natural numbers n, prove whether the following results are true or false.

a) n3 – n is always divisible by 6.
n3 - n = n (n2 - 1) = n (n - 1) (n + 1)
Whenever a number is divided by 3, the remainder obtained is either 0 or 1 or 2.

∴ n = 3p or 3p + 1 or 3p + 2, where p is some integer.

If n = 3p, then n is divisible by 3.
If n = 3p + 1, then n – 1 = 3p + 1 –1 = 3p is divisible by 3.
If n = 3p + 2, then n + 1 = 3p + 2 + 1 = 3p + 3 = 3(p + 1) is divisible by 3.

So, we can say that one of the numbers among n, n – 1 and n + 1

is always divisible by 3.
⇒ n (n – 1) (n + 1) is divisible by 3.
Similarly, whenever a number is divided 2, the remainder
obtained is 0 or 1.
∴ n = 2q or 2q + 1, where q is some integer.

If n = 2q, then n is divisible by 2.

If n = 2q + 1, then n – 1 = 2q + 1 – 1 = 2q is divisible by 2 and
n + 1 = 2q + 1 + 1 = 2q + 2 = 2 (q + 1) is divisible by 2.
So, we can say that one of the numbers among n, n – 1 and n + 1 is
always divisible by 2.
⇒ n (n – 1) (n + 1) is divisible by 2.
Since, n (n – 1) (n + 1) is divisible by 2 and 3.

∴ n (n – 1) (n+1) = n3 – n is divisible by 6. If a number is divisible by both

2 and 3 , then it is divisible by 6. STATEMENT A IS TRUE.
For all natural numbers n, prove whether the following results are true or
false.
B) n3 + n + 5 is always prime.
Counter example: Try n = 2:
23 + 2 + 5 = 15, which is not prime.
Statement B is FALSE.
FURTHER DIFFEREN
TIATION
Find the first and second derivatives for the function y(x) defined implicitly by x 2 + y2 = 2.

2x + 2y() = 0
- =(
⇒ 2y() = -2x
⇒ =(
⇒ =-

= (-

Use the quotient rule:

[]’ =
Find the first and second derivatives for the function y(x) defined implicitly by x 2 + 2xy =
1.

2x + 2(x+1.y) = 0 ⇒1+2 +x =0

⇒x+y+x =0 ⇒x =-2 -1

⇒ =- =-2(- )-1
=
1 + + [x +1. ] = 0
⇒ =
A function is defined implicitly by + = 8. At which coordinate is the gradient of the curve =
- 3?

+= 8 =3 + =8
=8
+=0
=9 =2

⇒= - =4
y = 9x = 9.4 = 36
=- =-3 Coordinate (4, 36)
3y2(+3y + 3x( = 6x

((3y2 +3y + 3x) = 6x

((y2 +y + x) = 2x

((

When x = 2, and y = 1:
m = ()
= 1.
y – b = (x – a)
y – 1 = 1(x – 2)
y = x – 1.
A curve is defined parametrically by x = t2 + 3, and y = t(t2+3)
a) Find in terms of t, and hence show that there are no stationary points.
b) Find in terms of t, and hence find the two non-horizontal points of inflexion on
the curve.

b) =
a) =

= =

= = 0, at a point of inflexion
= At a stationary point, = 0. =0
However, since ≠ 0, t=±1
for ∀x ∈ R, ≠ 0 ⇒ no stationary points. x = 4, y = ± 4
Coordinates: (4, -4), and (4, 4).
Find the constraint equation of the curve defined parametrically by:
x=2+,y=

t can be eliminated by:

(x-2) = ⇒ t =

y = () = () =
() = = 𝒙 𝟐 −𝟒 𝒙 +𝟓
−
𝒙 𝟐 −𝟒 𝒙 +𝟑
FURTHER INT
EGRATION
Evaluate:
dx The standard integral: = tan-1()+C

dx = [tan-1()]
= () . ()
= [tan ()] - [tan ()]
-1 -1

= [()] - [] = ()

= ()
 Evaluate:

The standard integral: = -1()+C

= [ () ]
-1

= [ -1() ] - [ -1() ]

= [ () ] - [ ]

= ()
The diagram shows a
sketch of the curve
y= .
Show that the area
between the curve and
the x-axis (1 ≤ x ≤1) is
sin-1()
Area = New limits:
Let x = ()sinu: When x = 1, u = -1()
⇒ x2 = ()sin2u When x = -1, u = - -1()
u = -1 ()
=
= . () [ -1() ]
= = -1()
⇒ du = dx
Find .
=
=
= ln ln + c
= ln ln + lnk
= ln
Find dx.
dx = 3
= ln ln + 3() + c
= ln + + c
Evaluate:

∫ 𝒇 ( 𝒙) 𝒈 ( 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙=𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒈 ( 𝒙 )−∫ 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒅𝒙
Using Integration by parts:
′ ′

Let g(x) = , and f’(x) =

⇒ g’(x) = 2x, and f(x) = - 2 dx

∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥
= - 2 dx

Using Integration by parts for a second time:

= 2[x - ]
= 2x + 2 + C
= -2x + 2) + C
Let u(x) = , and v’(x) =
⇒ u’(x) = 1, and v(x) =
 Evaluate:

Using Integration by parts:

∫ 𝒇 ( 𝒙) 𝒈 ( 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙=𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒈 ( 𝒙 )−∫ 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒅𝒙
′ ′

Let g(x) = x, and f’(x) = sin(3x)

⇒ g’(x) = 1, and f(x) = - cos(3x)
= - x cos(3x) +
= [- x cos(3x) + sin(3x)]

= [- () cos(3.()) + sin(3.())] - [- (0) cos(3.(0)) + sin(3.())]

= [0 + (- 1)] - [0 + 0 = -
Evaluate:

Using Integration by parts:

Let g1(x) = , and f1’(x) =

∫ 𝒇 ( 𝒙) 𝒈 ( 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙=𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒈 ( 𝒙 )−∫ 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒅𝒙
′ ′
= .- [. - ]
⇒ g1’(x) = 2(lnx)( ), and f1(x) =
= .- . + +C
= . -

Let g2(x) = , and f2’(x) =

⇒ g2’(x) = ( ), and f2(x) =

= . - [. - ]
The diagram shows part
of the graph y = x2sinx.
Evaluate the area
between the curve and
the x axis for 0 ≤ x ≤
𝜋.
 Integration by Substitution
Let u = sinx: Let u = sinx:
du = cosx dx du = cosx dx

= =
= +C
=+C
= +C
=+C
= +C
dx (x+2) dx

Let u = cosx + sinx: Let u = x:

du = cosx sinx dx du = 2x dx

dx = du du = x + 2

= ln + C (x+2) dx = du

= ln + C =+C
==+C
Use integration by parts.
u = x2, v’ = sinx
dx = [ x2cosx dx]
Use integration by parts again:
dx = 2(xsinx + cosx)
= [ x2cosx (2(xsinx + cosx) dx]
= [ x2cosx 2cosx) dx]
= ( 2) units2
Use the substitution x = 1 – sinθ, to evaluate

θ = sin-1(1 – x)
x2 = (1 – sin2 =-
= 1 – 2sin + sin2
dx = – cos d =-
New limits:
=-
When x = 1, θ = 0
When x = , θ = = -[]
= = -[]

=
A. Evaluate dx, t = lnx
B. Evaluate dx, u = x4 + 2
dt = dx du = 4x3 dx
dx = . dx = dt du = x3 dx
New Limits: New Limits:
When x = , t = 2 When x = 1, u = 3
When x = e, t = 1. When x = 0, u = 2.
dx = dt dx = du
= = ln2 – ln1 = ln2 = = - =
⇒x=2
Using the substitution x = tan(t), evaluate dx.
t = tan-1x
dx = dt
dt = dx

dx = . dx = dt - 3 dt

= dt = dt Solving dt :
Let u = , so by the quotient rule, dt = - .
dt - 3 dt = -- 3 dt = [- - 3sin(t)]
= [ - 3sint ]
New Limits: = ( - 3()) – (-1- 0)
=1-2.
When x = 1, t =
When x = 0, t = 0
The diagram shows
the curves y = and y
= –x+.

The curves intersect at

x = 0 and x = 1. Show
that the area enclosed
between the two
curves is ln2 –
dx dx
= dx
=[ +x]
= [ln()]
= ln6 ln3 =
= ln2
Upper – Lower

= ln2
x = 3cosθ = - dθ
= - dθ
= -3sinθ
dx = -3sinθ dθ = -[]
= -[()-()]
x2 = 9cos2θ =
New limits: when x = 3, θ = 0
and when x = , θ =

= dθ
= - dθ
Use the substitution u = x + 3, to show that dx = - tan-1

du = dx
u = x + 6x + 9
2 2 The standard integral: = tan-1()+C

= u2 + 16 tan-1()]
du =
New limits:
When x = 1, u = 4 = [tan-1()] - [tan-1()]
When x = 0, u = 3
= [] - [tan-1()]
dx = du

= - tan-1
COMPLEX N
UMBERS
 Complex numbers: Introduction

A complex number is a number of the form z = x + iy where x , y ∈ ℝ and i 2 = −1.

The real number x is called the real part of z (Re(z)) and the real number y is called the imaginary part
of z (Im(z)).

θ denotes the principal argument of z, which lies in the range (-π, π].

denotes the complex conjugate of z.

“cis(θ)” is used to denote (cosθ + isinθ)

Writing a complex number as z = x + iy is known as the Cartesian form of z.
A complex number z = x + iy is in polar form when it is written as,
z = r(cos θ + isin θ ) ≡ rcisθ
Complex numbers are added (subtracted) by adding (subtracting) the real parts
together and by adding (subtracting) the imaginary parts together.
The complex conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is the complex
number defined by, = x – iy. The complex conjugate of z = x + iy
satisfies, z = x2 + y2
The Complex Plane (or Argand Plane) is the 2D plane showing ℂ. The
horizontal axis is called the real axis (consisting of all complex numbers of
the form a + 0i), and the vertical axis is the imaginary axis (consisting of all
complex numbers of the form 0 +bi).
The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy is the distance of the
complex number from the origin of the Complex Plane and defined as r = =
The principal argument of a complex number z is the angle in the interval
(−π, π] from the positive x – axis to the ray joining the origin to z and
defined as,
θ = tan-1().
State for each of these complex numbers z.
a) 1 + i
1–i
b) 2 + 3i
2 – 3i
c) 4 – 2i
4 + 2i
d) – 5 –
–5+
e) i
–i
f) 8
8
Evaluate ( )3

=( )( )( ) =( )

=( )( ) =( )

=
=( )( )
Express z = , in the form x + iy, and find the modulus of z.

=
=
=
=
=
=5
=

=
If z = (2 + cosθ + isinθ), find the modulus of z in its simplest form.

=
=
=

=
 If z = 2 +2i, find z -1, expressing your answer in polar form.

z -1 =()() =
|z −1| z -1 = ∠ ()
z -1 =()()
=
z -1 =
θ = tan-1()
z -1 = - ()i
θ=
=
|z −1|
If z = (cosθ + isinθ), find in terms of θ:
a) z – z -1
b) zn – z -n
z -1 =()

Notice that this is

z -1 =()
equivalent to z -1 =
z = (cosθ + isinθ)
z -1 =()() ⇒ z -1 =
⇒ z -1 =
z -1 =()() z – z -1
= (cosθ + isinθ) – ()
z -1 =() = 2isinθ

z -1 =()
If z = (cosθ + isinθ), find in terms of θ:
a) z – z -1
b) zn - z -n z -n =
Alternatively: z -n =
zn - z –n = (cos(nθ) + isin(nθ)) -

zn = (cosθ + isinθ)n = 2isin(nθ)

zn = (cos(nθ) + isin(nθ))

z -n =()()
z -n =()()

z -n =()
Simplify the following:
a) 3(cos()+isin())x4(cos()+isin())
b) 8(cos()+isin()) ÷ 2(cos()+isin())

a) r1(cos(A)+sin(A))x r2(cos(B)+sin(B)) b) r1(cos(A)+isin(A)) ÷ r2(cos(B)+isin(B))

= r1 r2(cos(A+B)+sin(A+B)) = (cos(A-B)+isin(A-B))

⇒ 3(cos()+isin())x4(cos()+isin()) ⇒ 8(cos()+isin()) ÷ 2(cos()+isin())

= (3)(4)(cos(+ )+isin(+ )) = ()(cos( )+isin( ))
= 12(cos()+isin()) = 4(cos()+isin())
= 4(cos() - isin())
Convert (3+3i)5 into polar form by first writing it in exponential form.

Let z = (3+3i) z5 = 972

= z5 = 972cis()
=3 z5 = 972(- - i)
θ = tan-1()
z5 = -972-972 i
θ=
⇒z=3
⇒ z5 = (3
Solve for z if (1 + i)z = (3 + 4i)

Solving these two equations

simultaneously gives x = 3.5 and y = 0.5
Let z =(x + iy)
(1 + i)(x + iy) = (3 + 4i) ⇒ z = (3.5 + 0.5i)
x + iy + ix + i2y = (3 + 4i)
x + iy + ix – y = (3 + 4i)
(x – y) + i(x + y) = (3 + 4i)
(x – y) = 3, (x + y) = 4
Given z + 2i = 8 + 7i, for the complex number z, express z in the form a + ib.

z = a + ib ⇒ = a - ib
(a + ib) + 2i(a - ib) = 8 + 7i
a + ib + 2ia – 2i2b = 8 + 7i
a + ib + 2ia + 2b = 8 + 7i
a + 2b + i(b + 2a) = 8 + 7i
a + 2b = 8
b + 2a = 7
Solving these two equations simultaneously gives a = 2 and b = 3
⇒ z = 2 + 3i
Solve z2 + 2z + 5 = 0, and represent the solutions on an Argand diagram.
z Imaginary
z -1+ 2i
Let a = 1, b = 2, c = 5
z
z
Real
z
z 1± 2i

z -1- 2i
Verify that ( 1 + i ) is a root of the equation z4 + 3z2 – 6z + 10 = 0, and find the other roots.

( 1 + i ) 4 + 3 ( 1 + i ) 2 – 6 ( 1 + i ) + 10
= ( 1 + i ) 2 ( 1 + i ) 2 + 3 ( 1 + i ) 2 – 6 ( 1 + i ) + 10
= ( 1 + 2i + i2 )2 + 3( 1 + 2i + i2 ) – 6 ( 1 + i ) + 10 Since the result is zero on substitution of z,
( 1 + i ) is a root.
= ( 1 + 2i -1)2 + 3( 1 + 2i -1 ) – 6 ( 1 + i ) + 10
= (2i)2 + 3(2i) – 6 - 6i + 10
= 4i2 + 6i – 6i + 4
= – 4+ 4
=0
Verify that ( 1 + i ) is a root of the equation z 4 + 3z2 – 6z + 10 = 0, and find the other roots.
If ( 1 + i ) is a root, then its complex conjugate, ( 1 – i ) is also a root.
Corresponding factors are: ( z – ( 1 + i )) and ( z – ( 1 - i ))
The product of these factors gives a real quadratic factor:
( z – ( 1 + i ))( z – ( 1 - i )) = z2 – 2z + 2 z2 + 2z + 5
Polynomial Long Division: z 2 – 2z + 2 z4 + 3z2 – 6z + 10
- (z4 – 2z3 + 2z2)
The other quadratic factor is
therefore the quotient of z2 + 2z + 5. (2z3 + z2) – 6z
z z - (2z3 -4z2 + 4z)
(5z2 - 10z) +10
Let a = 1, b = 2, c = 5 - (5z2 - 10z + 10)
z
0
 If ( 2 + i ) is a root of the equation z 4 - 6z3 +16z2 -22z + q, where q is an integer, find all the other roots and the
value of q. Plot all the roots on the same Argand Diagram.
z2 – 2z + 3
Polynomial Long Division: z2 – 4z +5 z4 – 6z3 +16z2 – 22z + q
If (2 + i) is a root, so is its complex – (z4 – 4z3 + 5z2)
conjugate (2 – i).
The other quadratic factor is – 2z3 +11z2 (– 22z +q)
Factors: (z – (2+i)) and (z – (2-i)) –(– 2z3 +8z2 - 10z)
Multiplying these factors together therefore the quotient of z2 – 2z + 3
yields a real quadratic factor: 3z2 – 12z +q
= (z2 – 4z +5) – (3z2 – 12z +15)
q – 15 = 0
⇒ q = 15
Solving z2 – 2z + 3 using the quadratic formula: Imaginary

z z
z1
Let a = 1, b = -2, c = 3 z

z Real
z

z z2
(1 - 3i)4 - 4(1 - 3i)3 +11(1 - 3i)2 - 14(1 - 3i) -30
= 28 + 96i +104 -72i -88-66i – 14 + 42i – 30
= 0 ⇒ (1-3i) is a solution.
Since (1-3i) is a root, then its complex conjugate, (1+3i) is also a root.
Corresponding factors are: ( z – (1-3i)) and ( z – (1+3i))
The product of these factors gives a real quadratic factor: z 2 – 2z + 10
Use polynomial long division to divide (z 4 – 4z3 + 11z2 – 14z – 30) by (z2 –
2z + 10) to give a quotient of
z2 – 2z – 3.
The quotient factorises to (z+1)(z-3) so the fully factorised version of the
quartic is:
(z+1)(z-3)(z2 – 2z + 10)
Find the square roots of 7 – 24i d2

Let the square roots be of the form (a + id) Let a = 1, b = 7, c = -144

7 – 24i =(a + id)2

d2
7 – 24i = a2 + 2adi + i2d2
7 – 24i = a – d + 2adi
2 2 d2
z
d
7 = a2 – d2
a = , or a =
– 24 = 2ad
a=±4
a= -24 = 2(4)d, so d = -3
-24 = 2(– 4)d, so d = 3
– d22– 144 = 0
d74 =+ 7d z
⇒ Square roots are (-4 + 3i) and (4 - 3i)
 Solve z2 = 5 – 12i
Let z = x + iy, such that x and y are real numbers
z2 = (x + iy)(x + iy) (x2 – ())= 5 ⇒ z = 3 – 2i, or – 3 + 2i
z2 = x2 + 2xyi + y2i2 (x4 – 36)= 5x2
z2 = x2 + 2xyi - y2 (x4 – 5x2 – 36)= 0
z2 = (x2 - y2) + 2xyi
(x2 – 9)(x2 + 4)= 0
(x - y )=5, 2xy = -12
2 2
x = ±3, only
⇒y=- ⇒y=-
(x2 – ()2)=5 ⇒ y = ±2
Show that the roots of the equation z3 + 1 are represented on an Argand diagram as the
vertices of an equilateral triangle.

Imaginary
z +1=0
3
z

(z + 1)(z2 – z + 1) = 0 = z0 cis
From linear factor: UNIT CIRCLE
z1 = – 1 =
z1 -1
z θ = tan-1() Real

Let a = 1, b = – 1, c = 1 z2 cis
θ = + , where k = 0, 1, 2.
z ⇒z
Find the fourth roots of – 81i, leaving your answer in polar form.
z4 = -81i = 81 ∠ () Imaginary
z4 = r4(cos4θ + isin4θ)
z4 = r4(cos () + isin ())
z1 3 ∠ ()
=r =
4 z2 3 ∠ ()
= 81
= Real
=
z = (cosθ + isinθ) z0 3 ∠ ()

⇒θ= z3 3 ∠ ()
⇒ z = 3(cos () + isin () )
Solve z5 = 1 i, and illustrate the solutions on an Argand diagram.

z5 = r5(cos5θ + isin5θ)
Imaginary
= r5 =
= z1 cis

⇒r= z2 cis
z0 cis
tan5θ = ⇒ 5θ = + , where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
Real
⇒θ=
z3 cis z4 cis
θ=

⇒ z = (cos ( ) + isin ( )
Find the 6th roots of unity and mark the corresponding points on an Argand diagram.

Imaginary

z6 = 1 z2 cis
z1 cis
(cosθ + isinθ) = 1
6
UNIT CIRCLE
cos6θ + isin6θ = 1
cos6θ = 1 Real
z3 -1 z0 1
6θ = cos-1(1)
z5 cis
⇒ 6θ = 0 + 2k, where k = 0,1,2,3,4,5. z4 cis
⇒θ = =

In each case of k, bring argument of θ

into range (-π, π] by subtracting the ⇒ θ = 0, , , π, ,
largest possible whole multiple of 2π.
 Imaginary

arg w =
w = 2a(cos()+isin())
= 2a(cos()- isin()) Real

z
Interpret geometrically in the complex plane = 2

=2
=2
=2
x2 + (y +1)2 = 4
Compare with a formula of a circle: (x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2,
where the centre (a, b), and radius = r.

This is a circle with centre (0, 1), and radius 2 units.

a) Interpret geometrically in the complex plane =

=
=
x2 + (y+3)2 = (x – 1)2 + y2
x2 + y2 + 6y + 9 = x2 2x + 1 + y2
y=
A straight line with a gradient of
, and a y-axis intercept of
b) Interpret geometrically in the complex plane =
=

=
𝑥=− 4
⇒ All coordinates with an x component of 4 are equidistant from the points with x coordinates of
2 and 6, in the complex plane. In other words, all coordinates with an x component of 4 are on
the perpendicular bisector linking the set of x = 2, and x = 6, in the complex plane.
 a) Expand (cosθ + isinθ)4, using the Binomial Theorem and De Moivre’s Theorem.
Binomial Theorem:
1(cosθ)4(isinθ)0 + 4(cosθ)3(isinθ)1 + 6(cosθ)2(isinθ)2 + 4(cosθ)1(isinθ)3 + 1(cosθ)0(isinθ)4
= cos4θ+ 4cos3θ(isinθ) + 6cos2θ(i2sin2θ) + 4(cosθ)(i3sin3θ) + (i4sin4θ)
= cos4θ + 4icos3θsinθ – 6cos2θsin2θ – 4icosθsin3θ + sin4θ
= cos4θ – 6cos2θ(1 – cos2θ) + sin4θ + 4i(cos2θcosθsinθ–sin2θcosθsinθ)
= cos4θ – 6cos2θ(1 – cos2θ) + (1 – cos2θ)(1 – cos2θ) + 4i(cos2θ(0.5)sin2θ–sin2θ(0.5)sin2θ)
= 8cos4θ – 8cos2θ + 1 + 4i(0.5sin2θ)(cos2θ – sin2θ)
= 2(2cos2θ – 1)2 – 1 + 2i(sin2θ)(cos2θ)
= 2cos22θ – 1 + 2i(0.5sin4θ)
= cos4θ + isin4θ
De Moivre’s Theorem:
(cosθ + isinθ)4 = cos4θ + isin4θ
 b) Use the expansion results to show that:
= pcos2θ + qsec2θ + r, where < θ < , stating the values of p, q and r.

cos 4 θ
cos 2θ
= ⇒ p = 8, q = 1, r = -8
= +

= + sec2θ
a) z4 = (cos𝜃 + isin𝜃)4
= cos4𝜃 + 4cos3𝜃(isin𝜃) + 6cos2𝜃(isin𝜃)2 + 4cos𝜃(isin𝜃)3 + (isin𝜃)4
= cos4𝜃 + 4cos3𝜃(isin𝜃) + 6cos2𝜃(-sin2𝜃) + 4cos𝜃(-isin3𝜃) + sin4𝜃
= cos4𝜃 - 6cos2𝜃(sin2𝜃) + sin4𝜃 + i(4cos3𝜃(isin𝜃) – 4cos𝜃(sin3𝜃))
⇒ The real part is cos4𝜃 - 6cos2𝜃(sin2𝜃) + sin4𝜃
b) (cosθ + isinθ)4 = cos4θ + isin4θ
c) cos4θ = cos4𝜃 - 6cos2𝜃(sin2𝜃) + sin4𝜃
d) cos4θ = cos4𝜃 - 6cos2𝜃(1-cos2𝜃) + (1-cos2𝜃)2
= cos4𝜃 - 6cos2𝜃 + 6cos4𝜃 + 1-2cos2𝜃 + cos4𝜃
= 8cos4𝜃 + 1-8cos2𝜃
= 8(cos4𝜃 – cos2𝜃 ) + 1
k=8, m = 4, n = 2, p = 1
 Given that z = 1 + 2i, express z2(z+3) in the form a + ib. Hence verify that 1 + 2i is a root of the equation z 3 + 3z2
– 5z + 25 = 0, and obtain the other roots of the equation.
z2(z+3) = (1 + 2i)2(1 + 2i +3) z +5
= (4i - 3)(4 + 2i) Polynomial Long Division: z2 – 2z + 5 z3 + 3z2 – 5z + 25
= (16i – 8 – 12 – 6i) - (z3 – 2z2 + 5z)
= (-20+10i) (5z2 -10z + 25)
The other linear factor is
= z3 + 3z2 - (5z2 -10z + 25)
therefore the quotient of z + 5
z3 + 3z2 – 5z + 25 ⇒ z = (1 – 2i) and - 5, are the other roots. 0
= (-20+10i) – 5(1 + 2i) + 25
= -20 +10i – 5 -10i + 25 = 0
Real quadratic factor of
equation: ( z - 1 - 2i )(z - 1 + 2i)
= z2 – 2z + 5
 a) Express the complex numbers z1 = (1 + i) and z2 = (1 – i) in polar form.
b) Hence simplify (1 + i)20 + (1 – i)20
(1 + i)20 + (1 – i)20 = ()20 + ()20
θ 1 = tan–1() = () + ()
|z 1| =
θ 1 = () = (1024 ) + ()
=
θ 2 = tan–1() Bring argument into range (-π, π] by subtracting the largest
|z 2|= possible whole multiple of 2π.
= θ 2 = () Given that both arguments are both 2π(n+), such that n is an
integer, this places both magnitudes on the negative part of the
z1 = , real axis.
z2 = ,
⇒ (1 + i)20 + (1 – i)20 = -1024 -1024 = -1048
Given z = (cosθ + isinθ)5, find identities for both cos5θ and sin5θ,
in terms of cosθ and sinθ. Hence find an identity for tan5θ in terms of tanθ.
As per De Moivre’s Theorem, (cosθ + isinθ)5 = cos5θ + sin5θ

Expanding using the Binomial Theorem:

z = 1(cosθ)5(isinθ)0 + 5(cosθ)4(isinθ)1 + 10(cosθ)3(isinθ)2 + 10(cosθ)2(isinθ)3 + 5(cosθ)1(isinθ)4 + 1(cosθ)0(isinθ)5

z = cos5θ + 5i(cos4θ)(sinθ) - 10(cos3θ)(sin2θ) -10i(cos2θ)(sin3θ) + 5(cosθ)(sin4θ) + isin5θ

cos5θ = cos5θ - 10(cos3θ)(sin2θ) + 5(cosθ)(sin4θ)

Equating Real and Imaginary Parts
sin5θ = 5(cos4θ)(sinθ) -10(cos2θ)(sin3θ) + sin5θ
tan5θ =
tan5θ =

tan5θ =

⇒ tan5θ =
tan5θ =
 A Polar Rose Curve

Graph r = asin(nθ) and r = acos(nθ), for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤

2𝜋
Both a and n are integers that are not equal to
zero.
Comment on how the values of a and n chosen
determine the characteristics of the ‘rose’
graph.
For both the cos and sin
versions of the ‘rose’, a is a
constant that determines the
size of each ‘petal’.
If n = even you'll get 2n petals
If n = odd you'll get n petals
Sequences and Series
Find the fixed point of each of the following recurrence relations
and say whether it is stable or unstable.
a) un+1 = 3un + 4
b) un+1 = 0.6un + 8
c) un+1 = 2 3un
d) un+1 = 11 0.1un
e) un+1 = un 1
f) un+1 = 0.9un 1
un = run + d ⇒ un = , r ≠ 1 d) un =
=
a) un =
Since < 1, the fixed point is stable.
=2
Since ≮ 1, the fixed point is unstable. e) Undefined since 1-r = 0.

b) un = f) un =
= =
Since < 1, the fixed point is stable.
Since < 1, the fixed point is stable. .
c) un =
=
Since < 1, ≮ 1, the fixed point is unstable.
The volume of water in a loch varies according to the
formula: un+1 = 0.8un + 6 where un is the volume in millions of
litres at the end of each month n (Jan = 1).
A) Calculate the volume of water at the start of the year (u 0)
if there are 22 million litres at the end of January.
B) If the climate is such that the model is suitable for long
range forecasts, what will be the long-term situation?
A) un+1 = 0.8un + 6
22 = 0.8u0 + 6
u0 = 20 (million) litres
B) A limit exists since -1 < 0.8 < 1
Limit =
=
= 30 (million) litres in the loch in the long term.
Express the recurring decimal 0.121212… as a vulgar fraction.
0.121212… = 0.12 + 0.0012 + 0.000012 + …
a = 0.12; r = 0.01 ⇒ < 1 ⇒ S∞ exists

S∞ =

S∞ =
Given the arithmetic sequence 2, 8, 14, 20, … for what value of n is u n =
62?

The nth term of an arithmetic sequence, un = a + (n 1)d

a = 2, d = 6 ⇒ un = 2 + 6(n 1) = 6n 4
un = 62 ⇒ 6n 4 = 62
⇒ n =11
a) Common difference, d = (1 + ) – (1 + ) =

=
= n (2a+ (n 1)()) =

= (10)((2(1 + ) + (9)()
= (2 + 2 ) =

= (4 + 4 )
=
= (4 )
b) =
=
An arithmetic sequence is defined by un = 2n + 6
a) Find analytically the value of x such that 2ux = u3x
b) If a sequence is defined by un = pn + q, show that if 2ux = u3x then p is a factor of q.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
un 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

a) 2u3 = u9
⇒x = 3 x 1 2 3 4
ux p+q 2p+q 3p+q 4p+q
b) ux = xp + q
Since 2ux = u3x 2ux 2xp+2q 2xp+2q 2xp+2q 2xp+2q
2xp + 2q = 3xp + q
x= ,x∊N u3x 3xp+q 3xp+q 3xp+q 3xp+q
c) By considering ux and ux+1 show that a sequence defined by un = pn + q, where p
and q are constants, is an arithmetic sequence.
ux+1 - ux = p
p is the common difference x 1 2 3 4
ux p+q 2p+q 3p+q 4p+q

ux+1 2p+q 3p+q 4p+q 5p+q

ux+1 - ux p p p p
In a football stadium, the seats closest to the playing
area number 700. The seats are built up in terrace
which surround the pitch. The seats furthest from the
action, in the 30th terrace, number 1280.
A) If the number of seats in the terraces form an
arithmetic progression, calculate the number of seats
in the 10th terrace.
B) In another stadium the front row seats 800 people
and the 19th row seats 1000. Show that the numbers of
seats in each row do not form an arithmetic sequence.
A) un = a + (n 1)d

1280 = 700 + (30 1)d

d = 20
u10 = 700 + (10 1)(20)
= 880
B) Assume it is an arithmetic sequence:
un = a + (n 1)d

1000 = 800 + (19 1)d

d = 11 ∉ W ⇒ it is not an arithmetic sequence.
A kitchen roll comprises of a long unbroken
length of tissue wrapped round a central hub.
The tissue is 0.5 mm thick.
A) Show that the circumference of the
complete turns of the tissue round the hub
form an arithmetic sequence.
B) If the empty hub is 2 cm in diameter, work
out the first term of the sequence and the
common difference.
Let number of turns = n, radius of hub (in cm) = r, total R = radius (in cm), C =
circumference (in cm)
A) C = 2(0.05n + r)𝜋
Common difference = 0.1𝜋
B) Cn = a + (n 1)d
Let n = 2:
𝜋 = a + (2 1)(0.1𝜋 ) n 1 2 3 4 5
a = 𝜋 (cm) R 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25
C 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Given that 12 and 3 are two adjacent terms of an infinite geometric
progression with a sum to infinity of 64, find the first term.

Since a sum to infinity exists, < 1, so r =

S∞ =

64 =

⇒ a = 48
Given that 0.64 and 0.128 are two adjacent terms of an infinite geometric series
with a sum to infinity of 20,
A) Find the first term B) Sn = , r ≠ 1
B) Find the partial sum S5.
S5 =
A) S∞ =

20 =
S5 = 19.9936

a = 16
In the fifth century BC a Greek philosopher, Zeno of Elea, posed a series
of paradoxes which puzzled his contemporaries. The most famous of
these is his story of Achilles and the tortoise. Achilles can move 100
times faster than the tortoise. The tortoise is given 1000 m start. Zeno
argued that Achilles could not overtake the tortoise: when Achilles
reaches the starting position, T0, of the tortoise, the tortoise will have
moved to T1, 10 m away. When Achilles reaches T1, the tortoise will
have moved to T2, 0.1 m away. When Achilles reaches T2, the tortoise
will have moved to T3, 0.001 m away. The tortoise will always have
moved on!
A) i) What is the sum to infinity of the series 1000 + 10 + 0.1 + 0.001 +
…?
ii) Interpret your answer in the context of the question.
B) Assuming that Achilles runs at a steady 10 m/s,
i) Write down the start of the series of times it takes him for each
stage of his run.
ii) calculate the sum to infinity of these times.
 A)
i) S∞ =
S∞ =

S∞ = 1010.10101…

ii) Achilles and the tortoise are at the same spot 1010.10101… m from the start.

B)
i) 100, 1, 0.01, 0.001…
ii) A tenth of the previous sum to infinity i.e. 101.010101… seconds
iii) Achilles won’t overtake the tortoise until 101.010101… seconds.
The sum to infinity of both Geometric series: x+x 2+x3+…., and 3 + ,
exist and are both equal provided that < x < 1. Find the value of x.

r1 = r2 =
=
r1 = r2 =
=
S∞ = S∞ = 𝟐
𝒙=
𝟑
S∞ =

S∞ =
A) Expand using a suitable substitution in the expansion for .
B) Integrate to find an infinite series for tan –1 x.
C) The Scottish Mathematician James Gregory (1671), by
considering the fact that tan() = 1, found an expansion
which he could use to evaluate π.
Find Gregory’s Expansion
A) If 0, = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + …

Substituting x for :
= 1 + + x 4 + x6 + …

Substituting x for : = 1 + x4 x6 + …
B) dx

= dx

= x – x 3 + x5 x 7 + … + C

= 1 – 1 3 + 15 1 7 + …

⇒ π = 4(1 – 13 + 15 17 + … )
A) Expand (sinx – cosx)-1. Under what conditions it is valid?
B) By considering ( - )-1, expand (cos2x)-1.
C) Investigate ( - )-1

A) (sinx – cosx)-1 = . Rewrite the fraction with a denominator of 1-tanx:

= -secx()
Use = 1 + r + r2 + r3 + … :
= -secx(1 + tanx + tan2x + tan3x + tan4x …)
= -secx - secxtanx - secxtan2x - secxtan3x - secxtan4x …
Valid for <
B) - = cos2x
( - )-1 = (-secx)2(12 + tan2x + (tan2x)2 + (tan3x)2 + (tan4x)2 …)
= sec2x(1+tan2x +tan4x + tan6x + tan8x +tan10x …) and since sec2x = 1 + tan2x, this expands as:
(1 + tan2x + tan4x + tan6x + tan8x+…) + (tan2x + tan4x + tan6x + tan8x + …)
= 1 + 2tan2x + 2tan4x + 2tan6x + 2tan8x + …
C) Similarly, (1 - tan2x + tan4x - tan6x + tan8x - …) + (tan2x - tan4x + tan6x - tan8x + …) = 1
The geometric progression 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 +… + 1536 has an n th term, un = 3 x 2n-
1
; 1536 is its 10th term and so the progression can be written as
Express each of the following geometric progressions in sigma notation using a
similar method.
A) 2 + 6 + 18 + 54+… + 4374 A) un = 2 x 3n-1 C) un = 2000 x ()n-1
B) 3072 + 1536 + 768 + … + 3
C) 2000 + 200 + 20 + … + 0.002 B) un = 3072 x n-1 D) un = x n-1

D) + + + … +
Check that the progression -13 + 19 - 25 +31 - … + 67 can be written as
The series alternates hence the
Let r = 1: (-1)1(6(1)+7) = -13
Let r =2: (-1)2(6(2)+7) = 19 …
Let r = 10: (-1)10(6(10)+7) = 67
Use the same strategy to express each of the following in sigma notation:
A) -5 + 13 – 21 + 29 - … - 85
B) -7 + 16 – 25 + 34 - … + 106
C) -100 + 90 – 80 + … + 10
D) -26 + 22 – 18 + … - (-46)
A) -5 + 13 – 21 + 29 - … - 85 C) -100 + 90 – 80 + … + 10
90 -100 = 80 -90 = -10
13-5 = 21-13 = 8
Let r = 1: (-1)1((-10)(1)+?) = -100
Let r = 1: (-1)1(8(1)+?) = -5 ? = 110
When r = 10, the term has a value of -100.
? = -3 ⇒
When r = 11, the term has a value of -85.
D) -26 + 22 – 18 + … - (-46)
⇒ 22-26 = 18-22 = -4
Let r = 1: (-1)1((-4)(1)+?) = -26
B) -7 + 16 – 25 + 34 - … + 106 ? = 30
When r = 19, the term has a value of 46.
16-7 = 25-16 = 9
⇒
Let r = 1: (-1)1(9(1)+?) = -7
? = -2
When r = 12, the term has a value of 106.
⇒