ELEMENTARY

SURVEYING
(LECTURE)

Engr. Dean Carlo A. Lambino

SURVEYING METHODS –
HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
- Pacing
- Taping
• Tape Error
• Probable Error
- Stadia Method
SURVEYING METHODS –
HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
- Pacing
- Taping
• Tape Error
• Probable Error
- Stadia Method
Pace Factor
What is Pace Factor:
Pace Factor (P.F.) is defined as the ratio of the measured distance in the
number of paces made by an individual to cover the measured distance.
Problem 1: Pace Factor
A line 100m long was paced by a surveyor for four time with the
following data: 142, 154, 145.5 and 146. Then another line was paced
for four times again with the following results, 893, 893.5, 891 and
895.5.
1. Determine the Pace Factor.
2. Determine the number of paces for the new line.
3. Determine the distance of the new line.
SURVEYING METHODS –
HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
- Pacing
- Taping
• Tape Error
• Probable Error
- Stadia Method
Taping
-is used for short distances and in many construction applications.

- Typical engineering surveying accuracy ratios in the range of 1:3,000 to

1:5,000 can be readily attained when measuring with a steel tape.

Steel tape and plumb-bob

Taping (Accessories)
• PLUMB BOB
Normally made of brass and weigh from 8 to 18 oz.
They are used in taping to permit the surveyor to hold the tape
horizontal when the ground is sloping
A graduation mark on the horizontal tape can be transferred
down to a point on the ground using the plumb bob string.
Taping (Accessories)
HAND LEVEL
• Are small rectangular or cylindrical sighting tubes equipped with
tubular bubbles and horizontal crosshairs that permit the surveyor
to make low-precision horizontal sightings.

• Hand Level Hand – level application

Taping (Accessories)
CLINOMETER
• Is essentially a hand level with an attached protractor, which permits
the determination of low-precision (closest 10 minutes of arc) angle
readings.
• It can be used as a hand level
• It can be used to determine slope angles

• Abney Hand Level Abney Hand – level application

Taping
ERRORS AND MISTAKES IN MEARSUREMENT OF DISTANCES (TAPING)
Errors in Measurement: Mistake in Measurement:
• Tape not standard length • Adding a cm., usually in
• Imperfect alignment of tape measuring the fractional part of
tape length at the end of the line.
• Tape not Horizontal
• Recording numbers
• Tape not stretch straight incorrectly(ex. 56 is read as 65)
• Imperfection of observation • Reading wrong meter mark
• Variations in temperature
• Variations in tension
 Tape Error
Incorrect length (Tape too Short / Tape too Long)

Where:
TL = True Line
ML = Measured Line
c = Correction
Measure:
Laying Out
Confused?
Remember:
SLAMS
if too Short
in Layout
Add
in Measurement
Subtract
Tape Error
Values of C: (causes of error on taping)
1. Temperature
2. Pull
3. Sag
4. Slope
Tape Error
1. Change in Temperature

Where:

= Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

= 11.6x10-6/ 0C
= Tape length
= Change in Temperature
Types of Errors/Correction
2. Change in Pull

Where:
P2 = Actual pull during the measurement
P1 = Applied pull when the length of tape is L1
A = Cross – Sectional area of the tape
E = Modulus of elasticity of tape
Types of Errors/Correction
3. Change due to Sag
*Note: w = W / L

Where:
*Always subtract
w = Weight per Linear Meter
L = unsupported length
P = applied pull
Types of Errors/Correction
4. Change in Slope

s
h
a
H
Where: *Always subtract
H = horizontal distance or corrected distance
S = inclined distance
h = difference in elevation at the end of the tape
Problem 2: Tape Correction (Temperature)
A steel tape with a coefficient of thermal expansion of 0.0000116/°C is
known to be 50m long at 20°C. The tape was used to measure a line that
is 533.28 m long when the temperature was 35°C. Determine the
following:

a. Temperature correction per tape length

b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the measured line
Problem 3: Tape Correction (Pull)
A 30m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5 kg, supported for
full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m long on
smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10kg. Assuming E = 2x10^6
kg/cm2 and the cross sectional area of the steel tape to be 0.0612 cm2.
Determine the following:

a. Correction due to pull for one tape length

b. Total correction due to pull
c. Correct length of the measured line
Problem 4: Tape Correction (Sag)
A 30m tape is supported only at its end and under a steady pull of 8kg. If
the tape weighs 0.91 kg,

a. Determine the sag correction and;

b. The correct distance between the ends of the tape.
Problem 5: Tape Correction (Slope)
Slope distance AB and BC measures 330.49 m and 660.97 m,
respectively. The difference in elevation is 12.22 m for A and B. While
10.85 m for B and C. Using approximate slope correction formula,
determine the true length of the line ABC. Assume that line AB has a
rising slope and BC has a falling slope.
Probable Error
Probable Error
- is the value when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value will define the range of the true value

Deviation
- difference between any measured value of a quantity and
its most probable value
Probable Error

A. Probable error in a single C. Standard deviation

observation
D. Standard Error
where: E = probable error
E. Relative Precision (RE)

; = MPV

B. Probable error of the mean

Problem 6: Probable Error
Determine the most probable value of the measurements having different values based on the
number of measurements as tabulated in the table shown below. Find also the probable error of the
mean, standard deviation and standard error.

DISTANCE (m) NO. OF

MEASUREMENTS
520.14 2
520.20 4
520.18 8
520.24 5
Solution: For MPV
X w wx
520.140 2 1040.28
520.200 4 2080.80
520.180 8 4161.44
520.240 5 2601.20
= 19 9883.72
Solution: For Standard Error
Solution: For Standard Deviation
X w wx V V2 wV2
Recall: 520.140 2 1040.28 -0.056 0.0031124 0.00622493
520.200 4 2080.80 0.004 0.0000177 0.00007091
520.180 8 4161.44 -0.016 0.0002493 0.00199446
520.240 5 2601.20 0.044 0.0019545 0.00977285
= 19 9883.72 Σ wV2=0.01806316
Solution: For Probable Error of the Mean
X w wx V V2 wV2
520.140 2 1040.28 -0.056 0.0031124 0.00622493
520.200 4 2080.80 0.004 0.0000177 0.00007091
520.180 8 4161.44 -0.016 0.0002493 0.00199446
520.240 5 2601.20 0.044 0.0019545 0.00977285
= 19 9883.72 Σ wV2=0.01806316
SURVEYING METHODS –
HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
- Pacing
- Taping
• Tape Error
• Probable Error
- Stadia Method
STADIA METHOD
• Provide a rapid means of determining horizontal distances.
• The precision of the stadia method depends on:
• The refinement with which the instrument was manufactured
• The skill of the observer
• The length of measurement
• Effects of refraction and parallax
STADIA METHOD
STADIA METHOD
• The distance is measured using the formula

where:
D = Ks + C
D = distance from the telescope to the rod
C = stadia constant; distance from the center of the instrument to the principal focus;
usually zero for internal focusing telescopes
K = stadia interval factor of the instrument
s = stadia interval, difference between the upper and lower stadia hair reading.
Problem 7: Stadia Method
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at
A. The upper and lower stadia hair reading were observed as 1.300 m
and 0.900 m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100, and the
instrument constant (C) is zero, determine the length of the line AB.
Questions and clarifications?