Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Reproduction in Organisms
Life Span: The period which begins from birth and ends with the
natural death of an organism is known as its life span.
Reproduction is the process that ensures that species are continued from
generation to generation. It leads to the development of genetic
vavariation.
Reproduction in which two parents of the opposite sex are involved in the
fusion of male and female gametes is known as sexual reproduction.
The most commonly seen modes of asexual reproduction in the case of animals
are as follows:
1. Fission:
After a growth period, the organism is split into independent organisms. Some
single-celled eukaryotes go through binary division via mitosis.
For example, in lots of asteroid echinoderms, this technique takes place while
the central disk separates.
Some sea anemones and a few polyps also reproduce via division.
In some cases, it is seen that the nucleus divides several times by amitotic
divisions. This leads to the formation of several new copies of nuclei.
Cytoplasmic division does not take place during this time. The cytoplasm will
accumulate around each nucleus. Therefore, many unicellular and seedless
offspring are formed from a single cell. This method of propagation is known
as multiple fission. Eg Amoeba and Paramecium.
Differences between binary and multiple fission-
2. Budding
The budding is a type of asexual reproduction that occurs from the growth of
part of a cell or a region of the body that leads to the separation of the original
organism into two individuals.
As spores are different from the seeds, they lack the embryo created by the
fusion of male and female gametes.
Spores have thick walls and are very resistant to various adverse conditions
such as high temperatures and low huhumidity.
When the conditions are right, they germinate to give birth to new individuals.
Spores are found in some plants and fungi.
4. Fragmentation:
2. Buds:
Some algae produce branches of Advent like in the case of Dictyota, Fucus,
or buds like in Protosiphon. Like yeast, mushrooms produce sprouts.
These structures are the result of uneven division and adhere to the mother
cell.
Eventually, they separate and mature into a new organism.
3. Fragmentation
4. Spore formation:
Ciliated motile asexual spores, which are known as zoospores are produced
by algae and fungi. These zoospores swim in water for some of the time with
the help of flagella attached to them. In the later stage, they directly develop
into new independent individuals under favorable conditions. e.g. Ulothrix,
and Oedogonium.
Some of the fungi are terrestrial too. These have non-flagellated and non-
motile
spores/ conidia. These spores are therefore light in weight and dry. They have
a tough coat and are well adapted for dispersal by wind. E.g. Penicillium,
Aspergillus.
The structure which bears the true spores is defined as the sporangium. The
sporangium is present on a sporophyte. It helps the sporophyte multiplies
rapidly in an asexual manner to generate large numbers by spores. Some ferns,
for example, Nephrolepis bear spores and reproduce asexually by them.
These plants are homosporous; this means that they possess only one kind
of spore in their entire lifetime.
B-Quadri Flagellate
C- Multiflagellate
D-Synzoospore
E-Aplanospores
F-Tetraspore
G-Akinete
H-Exospore
I-
Endospore
Vegetative
Propagatio
n
It is a type of process in which new plants are obtained without the production of
sexual structures i.e seeds or spores. It involves the propagation of plants
through different types of vegetative parts such as the rhizome, sucker, tuber,
bulb, etc. In this, a fusion of the male and the female gamete does not take place
and requires only one parent. This is grouped into natural and artificial.
(i) NATURAL METHODS:
Vegetative propagation
Through the leaves: With this method, the shoots develop on the leaf edges.
These buds help in producing the new plants, as can be seen in Bryophyllum.
Through flower buds: In plants such as agave and oxalis, flower buds produce
new plants and in Dioscorea axillary buds do so.
LEAF OF BRYOPHYLLUM
(ii) ARTIFICIAL METHODS: In this type of method, only a small part of the
plant organ is utilized for obtaining a new complete plant. Amongst them, the
most common methods which are used are cutting, layering, and grafting.
(a) Cutting
In cutting, a small piece of root is cut and when planted in moist soil, it will
lead to the artificial inducement and development of adventitious roots. For
example, in lemon.
This method involves joining two plants of the same or different species, this
is achieved by connecting the tissues of the two plants directly to The. When
brought into contact, the meristematic tissue of both plants divides and
multiplies, and finally the cells of each plant fuse.
The rooted plant is called the stem plant. The plant that is grafted onto it is
called the sprout. A plant is selected as the "scion" that has superior and
desirable properties. The stock is generally strong, robust, and resilient,
mango, apple, pear, citrus, guava, lychee, and many other fruit plants are
obtained and kept in this waway.
The graft can be of several types, namely, bud graft, lateral graft, and tongue
graft, wedge graft, and crown graft, depending on the methods of joining the
two parts.
It is best for plants that are less efficient sexually, small seeds, long seed
dormancy, poor seed viability, etc. They can also be easily multiplied by this
method.
By using grafting, the desired characters can be brought together from two
varieties.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The formed gametes that fuse to form the zygote, which develops into a new
organism. It is a complex and slow process compared to asexual reproduction.
Since it is the fusion of male and female gametes, the offspring are not
identical to the parents or between them.
In all cases, sexual reproduction is characterized by the fusion of the male and
female gametes of the species.
For the sake of simplicity, these sequential events can be examined as three
different stages, namely pre-fertilization, fertilization, and post-fertilization.
PRE-FERTILIZATION EVENTS
1. Gametogenesis:
Gametes are always haploids. The parent may be either haploid or diploid. A
haploid parent produces gametes which are haploid by mitotic division.
In diploid organisms, when meiocytes (gamete stem cell, diploid 2n) undergo
meiosis, only one set of chromosomes is built into each gamete.
Types Of Gametes
(a) Isogametes of Cladophora
(b) Fucus
2. Gamete transfer
After their formation, the male and female gametes must come into contact for
fertilization. The male gamete is generally mobile and the female gamete is
generally stationary. Gamete transfer requires an appropriate medium. to
transfer.
A large number of male gametes do not reach female gametes, so that male
gametes are synthesized in very large numbers as compared with female
gametes.
In angiosperms, pollen grains carry the male gametes and the ovule contains
the ovules. Pollen grains are produced on the anthers and transferred to the
stigma. This phenomenon is known as pollination. Pollination requires the
involvement of external agents such as insects, animals, wind, and water.
The pollen grains germinate in the stigma and the pollen tubes that carry the
male gametes reach the ovule and eject two gametes near the ovule.
In bisexual animals, the organism has to develop a special mechanism for the
transmission of gametes, since male and female gametes are formed in
different individuals and this is essential for fertilization.
FERTILIZATION
The fusion of both gametes i.e male and female is known as syngamy. In this,
a diploid zygote is formed. This process is known as fertilization.
In most algae, fish, and amphibians, syngamy occurs outside the body of
organisms. This type of gamete fusion is called external fertilization. This is
seen in bony fish and frogs, where large numbers of young are produced.
extremely vulnerable to predators, which threatens their survival.
Syngamy occurs in the body of the organism in plants (ie fungi, mosses, and
pteridophytes) as well as in reptiles, birds, and mammals. Hence the process is
called internal fertilization. The mobile male gametes reach the egg and fuse
with it, which takes place within the female body.
In seed plants, the immobile male gametes are transported to the female
gametes through pollen tubes.
POST-FERTILIZATION EVENTS
1. Zygote
The further development of the zygote depends on the life cycle of the
organism and the environment to which it is exposed. In organisms such as
algae and fungi, the zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to
desiccation and damage and usually goes through a dormant phase. before
germination.
Some unicellular animals (z that form the zygote nucleus. This type of sexual
reproduction is called conjugation.
The zygote is the vital link that ensures the continuity of species between
organisms from one generation to the next.
2. Embryogenesis
Cell divisions will lead to the increase in the number of cells in the developing
embryo, while cell differentiation helps the group of cells undergo certain
modifications to form specialized tissues and organs to form organisms.
In animals, if the development of the zygote takes place in the body of the
female parent, it is called viviparous.
In egg-laying animals such as reptiles and birds, fertilized eggs, which are
covered by a hard calcareous shell, are deposited in a safe place in the
environment. After an incubation period, the young hatch.
Human Beings 46 23
House Fly 12 -
Rat - 21
Dog 78 -
Cat - 19
Fruit Fly 8 -
Ophioglossum - 630
Apple 34 -
Rice - 12
Maize 20 -
Potato - 24
Butterfly 380 -
Onion - 16
In the case of Angiospermic plants, the zygote is formed, inside the ovule.
Once fertilization takes place, different parts like the sepals, petals, and
stamens of the flower fall off. The pistil is the only part that remains attached
to the plant.
In plants:
B is T.S Ovaries.