HYPOTHESIS TESTING

What have we learned?

• Descriptive Statistics
–Introductory Concepts
–Tables and Graphs
–Measures of Central Tendency
–Measures of Variability
–Normal Distribution
 What to discuss…
• Tests of Hypothesis
– Steps in Hypothesis Testing
– Null and Alternative Hypothesis
– Appropriate Form of the Test Statistic
– Central Limit Theorem
– Drawing Conclusion based on the test value and
rejection region
What is a statistical hypothesis?
• an assumption or an assertion of
characteristic/s of one or more
populations
• Say,
• Males have higher IQ level than females.
• Or, rating of movies is related to the
number of viewers
 What is a hypothesis testing?

• a procedure for determining whether or not

the hypothesis is true or to be rejected
Let’s recall, what are the steps of a
scientific method
• Define a problem
• Gather data
• Formulate a hypothesis (an educated
guess)
• Test the hypothesis (experiment)
• Make a conclusion
 How is it the same with statistical
test of hypothesis?
• Define a problem We create 2 hypotheses...
• Gather data A hypothesis to be tested
• Formulate a hypothesis called the NULL HYPOTHESIS

• Test the hypothesis and a back up one called the

• Make a conclusion ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
• Null Hypotheses (Ho) – a hypothesis of no
differences, or of no relationship, or assumed
value of parameter and is usually formulated
for the purpose of being rejected
• Alternative Hypothesis (Research Hypothesis)
(Ha or H1) – the operational statement of the
researcher’s hypothesis. This is the statement
that is being rejected if the null hypothesis is
rejected.
 TYPE OF HYPOTHESIS
Remarks:
• The null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis are mutually
exclusive
• The alternative research hypothesis
can be directional or non-directional.
 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
• A directional research hypothesis
specifies the direction of the difference
or direction of relationship

• A non-directional research hypothesis

does not specify the direction of the
difference or direction of relationship
 ILLUSTRATION
• Who is smarter, males or females?
• Is IQ related to academic performance?
• Does in-house training make employees
more productive that out-house training
as indicated by their work performance?
• Is there a significant relationship
between the level of morale of
employees and their work performance?
 ILLUSTRATION
• Who is smarter, males or females?
• Is there a significant difference between the IQ
level of the male and females
• Is IQ related to the academic performance?
• Is there a significant relationship between IQ and
academic achievement?
1. Research Question: Is there a significant difference between
the IQ level of the males and females?
– Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between
the IQ level of the males and females.

– Non-directional alternative hypothesis:

– There is a significant difference between the IQ level of the
males and females.

– Directional alternative hypothesis:

– The IQ level of males is higher than that of the females
2. Research Question: Is there a significant relationship
between IQ and academic performance?
– Null Hypothesis: There is no significant relationship
between IQ and academic performance.

– Non-directional alternative hypothesis:

– There is a significant relationship (or correlation)
between the IQ and academic performance.

– Directional alternative hypothesis:

– The higher the IQ of a student the better is his
academic performance
 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
REMARK:
• The type of test to be used depends on
the nature of the research hypothesis.
• In general, f the research hypothesis is
directional, a one-tailed-test is used.
• If the research hypothesis is non-
directional, a two-tailed test is used.
• Decision maker (statistician) mainly relies on data
observed on whether he will REJECT the null
hypothesis or ACCEPT (fail to reject) it.

• However, true states of nature, which are beyond his

control, may determine whether his decision is good or
bad.
 Courtroom Trial Analogy
• Null Hypothesis: The defendant is not
guilty.
• Alternative Hypothesis: The defendant is
guilty.
• The judge may reject the null and convict
the defendant.
• Or accept the null and acquit him.
 Types of Errors
• Type I Error (producer’s error) is
committed when we reject the null
hypothesis when in fact it is true.

• Type II Error (consumer’s error) is

committed when we accept the null
hypothesis when in fact it is false.
 Remark: The values of the test statistic can be
classified into two sets;

1. Critical region or rejection region of a test is

the set of values of the test static that leads
to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

2. Acceptance region is the set of values of the

test statistic that will lead to the acceptance
of the null hypothesis.
 p-values or attained level of significance

• The probability of observing a value of the

test statistic as extreme as, or more extreme
than the one actually observed if the test
statistic really were distributed as it would be
under the null hypothesis.

• The smaller the p-value, the more strongly the

test rejects the null hypothesis.
 Decision Rule:
• When the p-value is greater than or
equal to the level of significance, the null
hypothesis is accepted.

• When the p-value is less than the given

level of significance, the null hypothesis
is rejected.
Other powerpoint
 TYPES OF SAMPLES
• Independent (or correlated)
samples

• Dependent (or correlated)

samples
 Independent Samples
• Defined as samples that are randomly selected
from distinct populations
• The sample sizes may or may not be equal

Population 1 Population 2 Population 3

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Independent Samples
 Examples of Independent Samples
1. Sample of male students and sample of female
students.

2. Sample of smokers and sample of non-smokers

3. Sample of parents, sample of teachers, and

sample of pupils
 Dependent Samples
• On the other hand, dependent samples or
correlated samples usually arise in experimental
designs where the objective is to make sure that
the subjects being compared are comparable in
terms of relevant variables.
 Dependent Samples
• These designs are repeated measures
designs (e.g. pretest-posttest design) and
matched group design.

• The sample sizes of the groups are always

equal.
A. Before and After or Pretest-Posttest Design
(Repeated Measures Designs)
• The two sets
Population of data are said
to be correlated
because they
are taken or
measured from
Sample the same set of
individuals

DATA SET 1 DATA SET 1

Intervention
(Pretest Scores) (Posttest Scores)

Dependent Samples
B. Matched Groups Design
Population
of paired • We take a sample
individuals of paired
individuals and
we randomly
split each pair
Sample of
paired into two groups.
individuals • The resulting
samples are
Sample 2 Sample 3 dependent or
correlated.

Dependent Samples
 For instance…
• Experimental study on the
effectiveness of two methods of
teaching, we have to make sure that
the groups of students are
comparable in terms of ability and
other relevant characteristics
 For instance…
• If matching is not done, it may
happen that the groups are not
comparable and the internal validity
of the study will be questionable.
 For instance…
• However, this is rarely resorted to by
educational researchers because of
the difficulty in matching individuals.
• Also, the more variables considered,
the more difficult it will be to form a
good number of matched or paired
individuals.
 THE T-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
(POOLED VARIANCE ESTIMATE)
• Used when comparing independent samples
and the dependent variable is measured in at
least ordinal variable.
• When the population variances of the two
groups can be assumed equal
• The rule of thumb is, we use the pooled
variance estimates when the sample sizes are
equal or near equal.
FORMULA
 Example
• Is there significant ____X1 __ X2_____
difference in the mean 80 68
scores of students 79 71
78 68
exposed to the two
69 62
methods of teaching 68 52
Physics? The following are 78 67
the scores of the students. 75 63
74 70
73 59
81 61
NewMethod Trad.Method
 Solution
• The computed value of t=4.879 is
greater than the critical value of t=1.73
at 5% level of significance with df=18
(one tailed)
• Hence, the corresponding null
hypothesis is rejected on this basis.
 THE T-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
(SEPARATE VARIANCE ESTIMATE)

• When the population variances cannot be

assumed equal, the use of the pooled variance
estimate is not justified. This happen when there is
great disparity between the two sample sizes.
• Formula:
Example
• Consider the means and Male Female

standard deviations of N1 = 9 N2 = 25
Mean1 = 43.8 Mean2 = 47.2
the achievement scores Sd1 = 5.4 Sd2 = 4.9

in English of 90 male
Is there reason to believe that
and 75 female high female students did better in
school students. the achievement test than
male students? Use α = 0.05
Solution
• Using the t-table with df=40 and α = 5% (two
tailed), the critical value is 1.684.
• The corresponding null hypothesis is not
rejected
• There is no sufficient evidence to show that
the achievement scores of female students are
better than the achievement scores of male
students.
THE T-TEST FOR CORRELATED SAMPLES

• The t-test statistic for dependent samples is

given by:
(formula)
Example
• An advertising campaign to stop smoking was
conducted. The effectiveness of the campaign was
tested by recording the average number of
cigarettes smoked per day by a random sample of
10 smokers before and after the campaign. The
data are as follows
Example
Subject Before After
1 20 18
2 25 20
3 17 17
4 18 17
5 28 25
6 30 24
7 19 16
8 24 22
9 26 20
10 32 30
Conclusion
• Withdf=9and α =5%level(one-tailed),thecriticalvalueoftis1.833
• Werejectthenullhypothesis.
• Weconcludethatthemeannumberofcigarettessmokedwas
significantlyreducedafterthecampaign.
• Itmaybeconcludedthatthecampaignwaseffectiveinreducingthe
numberofcigarettessmokedperday.