vcx

SPICE CROPS
Production
and
Processing
Mandefro Gebre (MSc.) 1
 PART II: Spice Crops Production and Processing
Course Content
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1. Place of spices, herbs and medicinal plant in Agriculture
2. Definition of terms: Spices and Herbs
3. Importance of spices, herbs and medicinal plant
4. Historical perspective of spice, herbs and medicinal plant production in Ethiopia
5. Spice ,herbs and medicinal production in Ethiopia

CHAPTER 2. CLASSIFICATION OF SPICES

1. Methods of Classification
2. Products of spices

CHAPTER 3. INDIVIDUAL SPICE CROPS PRODUCTION

Zingiberaceae spices
 Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
Orchidaceae spice crops –
 Turmeric (Curcuma domestica)
 Korarima (Aframomum cororima)  Vanilla (Vanille fragrance)
 Cardamom (Elletaria cardamomum)
Lauraceae spices
Piperaceae spice crops
 Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum)
 Black pepper (Pipper nigrum)
2
3
 Introduction
Introduction

♣ Spices: are natural plant products used to

♣ improve, aroma, taste and colour of food products
 It might be dried seed, fruit, root, bark or vegetative
substance

►used in nutritionally insignificant quantities

as a preservative by killing or preventing the growth of harmful

bacteria

2016 E.C 4
 Introduction cont.…
♣ also used in beverages, liquors, and pharmaceutical, cosmetic
and perfumery products

♣ Ethiopia is the original place of following spice

 pepper
 black cumin, .
 coriander and Korarima

♣ Both local use of spices and spice exports are extensive

♣ Ethiopia spices are well-known for their excellent
aroma, flavour and pungency
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 1.1 Places of Spices in Horticulture
Agricultures the Science and Technology involved in the
production of plants and raising of animals
Plant agriculture – in turn comprises different fields as
Horticulture, agronomy, forestry and plant breeding, etc.

♣ Horticulture is the Science and Technology involved in the

.
Production, Processing and Merchandising of

♣ Fruits, Vegetables,
♣ Root and Tubers,
♣ Ornamentals, Beverage crops,
♣ Spices and Herbs and Medicinal plants

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 Places of Spices in Horticulture and other
Agricultural disciplines:
Agriculture

Production of Plants Raising of Animals

Horticulture Agronomy Forestry Plant Breeding, etc.

Ornamental
Pomology Olericulture Medicinal and Beverage
Horticulture Aromatic Plants Crops

Medicinal plants HERBS SPICES 2016E.C 7

 1.1 Places of Spices in Horticulture
Horticulture by itself is a Wide Discipline which includes:
 Pomology (a branch of botany that studies fruit and its
cultivation).
 Olericulture
 Floriculture
 MAP (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants)
 MAP in turn include:
.
 Spices
 Herbs
 Medicinal plants
♣ Thus Spices are Parts and parcels of Horticulture and Play a great

role in Horticulture
2016 E.C 8
 Introduction cont.…
There is sometimes an Overlap between Spices, Herbs and
Medicinal plants i.e. a given plant which is considered as a
Spice at one time/place may serve as a
Medicinal at other times/places

 Spices and Herbs:

 Those plants whose Primary use is for Seasoning
(Flavoring) of different products of
 Food and Beverage will be referred to as Spices

♣ Medicinal/drug plants/crops:
Those plants whose Primary use is Therapeutic/Healing will be
referred to as Drug crops
2016E.C 9
 1.2 Definition of terms
What are Spices?
 Before defining What Spices are, it seems appropriate to
point out
=> What makes Spices? . . .
=> What they are?

 Plants are cultivated for the Complex molecules => they

Synthesize through Metabolic processes
 The various Compounds produced in the Plant are derived
from -

=> the Carbon Compounds produced by Photosynthesis and

=> the Inorganic nutrients and Water absorbed from the Soil
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 cont.…
Of the various Metabolic Products
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins, and
 Lipids are the Compounds of most concern as
they are -

 the Major products of the process and, by large, for they are the

Major constituents of Food on which Animals (including

man) depend

2016E.C 11
 cont.…
 In addition to Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipid,
 a great number of Organic compounds,
 are formed in Metabolic processes

 Some of the most important Metabolites, other

than Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipids are -
 Organic acids,
 Alcohols,
 Vitamins,
 Aromatic Compounds and others

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 Aromatic Compounds
The Aromatic Compounds include
 Essential oils,
 Oleoresins and
 Oleogum-resins,
 Alkaloids, Lignin, Tannins and different Pigments

These Aromatic Compounds are characteristically Produced

only by Certain Plants or Plant Groups and -
 are Produced in Specialized Plants Structures
 Specialized Structures (cells, ducts or glands) are where
Aromatic Compounds are produced
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 cont.…
 Essential oils:- in common with all other Aromatic
compounds, are formed in Specialized Plant Structures
(Glands, Ducts or Cells) in various Plants and Plant parts
 Plant parts which constitute the Spice are: -
 the Rhizomes, Barks, Leaves,
 Flower buds, Fruits,
 Seeds and the Roots
Essential oils are Moistures of Volatile, Highly Aromatic substances that
have distinctive Odors and Flavor
Obtained by Steam Distillation
Although called ‘Oils’, these compounds are not Lipids nor are they
necessarily Essential to the plant(s) in which are produced
2016 E.C 14
 The term ‘Oil’ refers to the Volatility of the product when
come in contact with either
 Air or Light even under ordinary Temperatures
 while the term “Essential” refers to the notion of Scent
(Aroma, Odor, Fragrance…) rather than Importance
 Thus, Spices (and Herbs) are those plants which are
Grown and Used

Principally for their Scent (odors and flavors) in the

Seasoning of Foods both in Traditional and Modern Food

processing industries and are Defined as follows:

2016 E.C 15
Definition of terms…

1. Spices
2. Herbs
3. Condiments
4. Flavor
5. Aroma
6. Pungency
7. Essential oils
8. Oleoresin

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 1. Spices
 Spices are various strongly
 flavored, aromatic, pungent and
 Dried vegetable substances
 that are obtained form different parts of plants
 (seeds, fruits, leaves, barks, roots, rhizomes, and etc)

 that are Tropical or Sub-tropical in origin and are used for

 Seasoning or Flavoring of Foods and Beverages
 Thus, Spices are utilized for their Aromatic compounds

2016 E.C 17
 2. Herbs
 Herbs are Vegetable products obtained from
 Soft Stemmed or
 Succulent plants
 the whole Herbaceous Tops of which are gathered and used,
 may be either Fresh or Dried, in the Seasoning of
 Foods and Beverages like spices

 Are Temperate in origin or thrive best in Temperate and

Mediterranean type of climate
 Have low % of essential oils than spices

2016 E.C 18
 cont.…
 Freshly picked Green Herbs have
 Stronger or Higher Flavor intensity than
 their Dried one,
 as a very considerable proportion of the volatiles
 responsible for the characteristic flavor are
 Lost or Modified during the Drying process

 Both Spice and Herbs are entirely Plant in origin and thus,
 Neither Mineral substances nor
 Animal product are to be considered
 as Spice or Herbs
2016 E.C 19
 3. Condiments

 Condiments - are Food Additives (Salt, Butter, Spices and

Herbs) to impart (give a quality to) Flavor to Foods
 It Used as Food Additives to produce Flavor or for
 Seasoning of Foods

4. Flavor
 The total sensory response in the mouth to the spice/herb
 It includes taste, smell and hot sensation
 Flavor-Consists of simultaneous appreciation of Scene of taste
 on the tongue, smell in the nose, touch on the tongue
 and linings of mouth, as well as pungency
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 5. Aroma

 Distinctive Smell posed /caused by the

 Volatile constituents of the spice material,
 its distilled Essential oils, and
 Oleoresins extracts

6. Pungency

 Hot Sensation produced on

 the tongue (in the mouth) by
 Pungent spices

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 6. Essential oils
 Complex Mixtures of Volatile Compounds which
 can be Isolated from the plant material by
 Distillation (Steam or Hydro)
 Essential Oils are Moistures of Volatile,
 Highly Aromatic substances that have
 distinctive Odors and Flavor =>
 (i.e., obtained by Steam Distillation)

 These Oils (Volatile Oils) possess

 a Pleasant Fragrance and Evaporate when
 it comes in contact with Air

2016 E.C 22
 cont.…
 Essential’ refers to its Scent (odor and flavor)
 ‘Oil’ refers to its Volatility
 Fragrance – Pleasant Odour or Smell

Whiskey Distillation

 The separation of alcohol from water is an example of the

process of distillation
 When a dilute alcohol solution is boiled, alcohol makes up most
of the initial vapor because alcohol boils off faster than water

2016 E.C 23
 cont.…

 That vapor is trapped and re-condensed several times to form

 the more concentrated alcohol mixture used
 in the production of whiskey

2016 E.C 24
 7. Oleoresin
 The Solid or Semi-Solid Residues obtained by
 Solvent Extraction of the plant material Followed
 by Evaporation of the Solvent

The most common Solvents are: -

♣ Hexane
♣ Acetone
♣ Ethanol

Oleoresins are Highly Concentrated and obtained

 by Solvent Extraction

2016 E.C 25
 Essential oils and Oleoresins have got a wide application in
industries like: -
♣ Cosmetics
♣ Perfumery
♣ Food and beverage factories
♣ Pharmaceuticals
1.3 Importance of Spices
1. As flavoring materials
2. As a sources of essential oils and oleoresins
3. As a sources of Color
4. Medicinal uses
5. Source of cash income and employment
2016E.C 26
 1. As flavoring materials:

 Flavoring materials:-
 taste enhancers, improve smell,
 taste, stimulate digestive system
The Acceptance of Foods depends upon many factors
 some of which are External to the product while
 others are Intrinsic to it (i.e. Internal factors)

The Acceptance of Foods depends upon many factors

 some of which are External to the product while
 others are Intrinsic to it (i.e. Internal factors)
2016 E.C 27
 Cont..

 Of the External Factors:

 Price, Packaging,
 Convenience, and
 Advertising play a part in our selection of
 one food product over the other

While from the Internal/Intrinsic Factors => features such as

 Appearance, Texture,
 Consistency, and
 above all, Flavor are of great importance

2016 E.C 28
 Cont..

When considering the items that Makeup our Food,

there are two quite distinct
 Nutritional and Flavor Groups - -

 High Nutrition and Low Flavor

 (E.g. - Wheat, Milk, Fish)
 Low Nutrition and High Flavor
 (E.g. - Spices, Herbs…)

 Spices are Taste enhancers, used for their

 Aroma and Flavor
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 Cont..

It is a well recognized physiological fact that if the

 Flavor of food is Attractive and Satisfying
 (if it Smells and Tastes Good) to the Eater, then:

 the digestive systems work well,

 gastric juices stimulated and
 the digestive system comes fully into play

 Most people have experience of the mouth

watering effect of the Smell of a
 really lovely freshly cooked meal is an example,
 even though they may not have seen the food itself
2016 E.C 30
 Cont..

The other fact is that, no matter How Good Food is

to Look or How Balanced it may be from a
 Nutritional point of view,
 if it does not Smell and Taste Good then:

 these reflex senses are not stimulated and

 eating remains a mere task rather than a real
pleasure

 For this reason it is necessary To Improve the

Flavor of the main group of our staple food items
31
 Spices and Herbs are used as taste enhancers
(flavoring) and improve the quality of life issues
such as:
 dietary quality,
 enjoyment in eating and drinking
 hence making life worth and enjoyable

 Thus, these Aromatic products mainly (Spices and

Herbs) improve -
 the taste, smell and stimulate digestive system and
thus palatability and digestibility of the food 32
 2. As a sources of essential oils
and oleoresins
 Essential oils get application in many products,
as substitutes of the original plant material
from which are derived
 All aromatic plants have essential oils but all
sources of essential oils are not spices

33
 3. As a sources of Color
 Spices or Dye extracted from Spice materials
impart Color and improve the appearance of the
product
 Thus as coloring material, Spices are widely used in
Food, Cosmetic, Pharmaceutical, Textile industries
and others
Examples:
 Paprika and Annatto (red)
 Turmeric and Saffron (yellow) 34
 4. Medicinal uses
 Spices and spices based essential oils and oleoresin, in
addition to their use as Flavoring agent, are used for
Medicinal purposes since they have -
 Preservative,
 Stimulating,
 Curative and tonic effect
 Anti-microbial properties
 Carminative and aphrodisiac properties
 Spices based essential oils; oleoresin and alkaloids have-
 Curative, carminative and aphrodisiac properties and thus
are increasingly being used in current pharmaceutical
formulae 35
5. Source of cash income and employment
 Spice and spice products are Highly Economic
important
It is the nature of Spice and spice products that they are -
 Labor intensive from cultivation up until utilization,

 Small in bulk, easy and cheap for transportation, but

have higher unit values
Thus if developed, the production, processing, and marketing
of these numerous and valuable crops can generate -
 Considerable job opportunity for the people whilst
36
 Fetching sizable foreign currency for the nation
 1.4 History of Spices in Ethiopia
 Spices are among the most ancient and widely utilized
commodities in the world
– In our country, like wise, the production and use of spices is
perhaps the most romantic story of any vegetable products

• Production and utilization of spices in traditional food

processing, medicinal as well in ancient trade exchange is known
from the time of Queen Sheba
• Queen Sheba visited King Solomon of Israel in about 1992 B.C.

• During that time she went there with a great company and
camels loaded with Spices, Precious stones and Gold, and She
presented the materials to the king as a dowries (Purseglove, 1981)
37
 During the ancient Ethiopia Kingdoms notably
Axum, Ethiopia was very much involved in
Spice trade

 Spice was perhaps among the top few pioneer

export commodities that Ethiopia traded
internationally by then

 Despite Ethiopia’s a long history in Spice trade and

its conducive agro-ecology the contribution of spice
trade remained minimal and low
38
 1.5 Spice Crops in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a land of plenty as far as Plant
Germplasm is concerned

 It is one of the centers of genetic diversity

and/or origin of crops

According to Vavilove (1951), the following Spices

and Herbs are connected to Ethiopia either as
Primary or Secondary Gene center
39
Table: Some Indigenous Spices and Herbs,
according to Vavilove (1951)
Common name Scientific name
Korarima Aframomum Korarima
Long pepper Piper longum
Coriander Coriandrum sativum
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum– graecum
Mustard Brassica nigra and B. alba
Thyme Thymus schimperi
Buckthorn Rhamnus prinoides
Black cumin Nigella Sativa
Shallot Allium ascaloncum
Lemon grass Cymbopogon spp
Basil Ocimum Spp
Mint Mentha Spp.
Rue Ruta Spp. 40
 Besides the indigenous spices, as a result of the
country’s diversified agro ecological conditions
a number of Exotic Spices were introduced to
our country -

Examples are:
 Ginger, Turmeric, Black pepper,
 Paprika pepper (non-pungent capsicum),
 Cardamom, Cinnamon, and Vanilla

41
 Diversified agro-ecology suits the growth and production
of Tropical, sub-tropical and Temperate spices and herbs
 Presently the national market demand of Korariam,
Long pepper, Chilies, Ginger, Turmeric and most other
herbaceous spices is met by Local Production,

– Korarima and Long pepper – Indigenous

 Market demand is met by Local production - naturally
growing plants and small scattered holdings
 While the other important spices such as:
 Pepper (black pepper), Cardamom, Cinnamon, Clove,
Nutmeg, Pimento and Vanialla etc… are being IMPORTED
42
 Spices cultivation
Attention in the past was not significant - however, Spice
cultivation in Ethiopia has been since time immemorial
It ranges from very hand full Spice plants around Homestead
Gardens to Scattered plants in Farmers Field to Small Semi
Commercial Plantations including -

 The recently established Private Farms and that owned by the

then Coffee Plantation Development Enterprise at Tepi and
Bebeka (Now Horizon Coffee Plantation)

 While the major source of supply is from naturally

growing plants 43
 There are enormous opportunities for the expansion
and diversification of Spices sector in Ethiopia =>
Ethiopia offers great opportunity to the spices industry

Presently, there is an Increasing interest in Spice

production in the country mainly due to:
1. Availability of Highly Diversified and Favorable Environment
Conducive for the production of exotic and indigenous spices

2. Presence and availability of both nationally and

internationally recognized spices indigenous to the country, of
which korarima and long pepper are worthwhile to be
44
3. The very great role spices play in Ethiopian diet
 Owing to the food habit most of the people use large quantities
of herbs and spices in their daily food preparations and thus
high local demand

4. Some of the major spice crops (Korarima and long pepper)

have originated in the moist ever green rain forests of the
country along with Arabica coffee,
 Compatible with each other
 Shade tolerant, gives an opportunity for different
cropping systems,
 Coffee diversification, Conservation and development of
natural resources 45
5. The existing high local, industrial and international
market demand for herbs and spices of different types

But since production and methods or ways of

handling are unimproved or unscientific

=> both quantity and quality of spices

produced in the country are low and
remained poor

46
 Some of the factors that have contributed to the
low productivity and quality of spices in
Ethiopia are stated as follows:
1. Lack of consideration from the government in developing
these valuable crops and absence of national institute with
full mandate to develop these crops

2. Lack of improvement in the crops and thus inferior

varieties for yield and poor quality product

3. Instability of price both nationally and internationally

which is in turn influenced by level of production (supply)
47
4. Lack of improved technology in the past, hence inadequate
post harvest handling of the products together with
traditional processing techniques that result in poor quality
products

5. Limited variability of the available planting materials for

introduced ones
6. Less research done on these crops locally in the past

7. Lack of means of procurement of new and improved

planting materials

8. Lack of know-how and management at both pre– and post

48
harvest stages, especially for those introduced spices
 CHAPTER TWO
2.1. Classification of Spices
Methods (Bases) of Classification:
1. Parts used for consumption
a) Seed spices: fenugreek, cardamom, korarima, black
cumin etc
b) Fruit spices: long pepper, black pepper, coriander,
capsicums, vanilla etc
c) Flower parts (Un-open flower buds): clove,
d) Bark spices: cinnamon, cassia
e) Rhizomatous spices: ginger, turmeric
49
f) Leafy spices: sweet bay, celery and many herbs
2. Based on Characteristic flavor and aroma
a) Pungent spices: - ginger, chilies, mustard
b) Aromatic spices: - cinnamon, cassia, nutmeg and mace,
cardamom, korarima and fenugreek
c) Phenolic spices:
o Phenolic - products having dilute aqueous solutions
called Carbolic acid
 Clove buds, Pimento berries
d) Colored spices:
 Paprika and Annatto => Produce red brilliant dye,
 Saffron and Turmeric => Produce yellow dye
50
3. Botanical classification
 In accordance with the rules of international botanical
nomenclature in which binomial names are assigned
 Person who first named (epithet) and described the species
is always preceded by a generic name
Piper nigrum L.
 It is the scientific name for black pepper, and was identified
and described for the first time by Linnaeus (the botanist who,
gave its scientific name - first arranged the name in this way)
≫ Piper nigrum (Black pepper)
≫ Piper longum (Long pepper)
≫ Aframomum cororima (Korarima) 51
4. Life cycle of the crops
1. Annuals:
a. Umbellifarae spices: Coriander, dill, fennel, celery

b. Other annual spices: Fenugreek, mustard, chilies,

bulbous spices …

2. Perennials:
 Tree spices like clove, cinnamon …

 Vine spices like vanilla and black pepper and a

number of perennial herbs 52
5. Based on the origin of the crops
 On the basis of their origin, spices are classified as
indigenous or exotic in reference to the country in
question

o Examples -

 Indigenous spices: korarima, long pepper,

fenugreek, etc.
 Exotic spices: black pepper, vanilla, cardamom etc.
53
Most of the above classifications bring together crops of
different cultural and environmental requirements;
 Thus, they do not form the basis for management of
the crops
Therefore, comprehensive classification must be
used and include:
 Methods of cultivation of the crops,
 Parts used for consumption and
 Major requirements of the crops

Accordingly, spices can be classified into the following

54
1. Small evergreen under storey tree spices
 Clove, nutmeg, cinnamon and cassia
o All of them are propagated by seed and take several years
to come into bearing

2. Perennial herbaceous climbers

 Black pepper and vanilla
 In these two crops, propagation is by vegetative means
 Grown for their fruits
 Require supports upon which to climb and are support
obligate spices
 They come into bearing within 2- 4 years after planting
o Vanilla needs Hand pollination & is slight Shade demanding
55
3. Perennial rhizomatous herbs
(Zingiberaceae spices)
a. Those grown for their rhizomes: -
 Ginger and turmeric: They are grown for their rhizomes They
are annuals and propagation is by vegetative parts, i.e. by
portion of rhizome as they rarely produce seed

b. Those grown for their aromatic seeds: -

 Aromatic Zingiberaceae spices such as:
– Cardamom, (Elitteraia cardamomum),
– korarima, (Aframomum corarima),
– Amomum species.
 Grown for their aromatic seeds in their capsules
 Perennial, propagated either by seed or vegetative means
56
 The corps are shade obligate
4. Annuals spices and Culinary herbs
 Comprises a number of annual spices grown for
either aromatic seeds, fruits or leaves including

 Chilies, fenugreek,

 Umbellifereae spices (e.g. coriander) and

 a number of different herbs some of which are

annuals while others are biennial or perennial

57
 Brain storming Questions
1. Comprehensible between Spices and Medicinal
/drug plants/ crops.

2. Compare and contrast Spices and Herbs.

3. Distinguish between Essential oil and Oleoresin.

4. Mention Importance of Spices.

58
 Quiz
1. wright three examples of Seed spices
2. comprehensive classification of spices must be used
and includes
3. Based on Characteristic flavor and aroma
production spices can be groped in to 4 list them
4. wright two examples of Aromatic Zingiberaceae
spices
5. Mention at list three Importance of Spices

59