General Physics (Phys1011)

Unit 9: Heat &Thermodynamics

Dr. Nika Bekri

2024
 Thermodynamics
What is thermodynamics?
• Thermodynamics is a branch of Physics that studies about energy transfer
between heat and other forms.
• It is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature,
and their relation to energy, entropy,
Concept of Temperature and Heat
Temperature is a physical quantity
that tells us how warm or cold an
object is
 Cont.….
• Temperature is the measure the average kinetic energy of the particels.
• Temperature determines the direction of heat flow
• Heat will flow from body A to B until the bodies having
same temperature. This is called thermal equilibrium.
• Heat is a spontaneous flow of energy into or out of a system
caused by a difference in temperature between the system and its
surroundings
• The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If bodies B and C are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third body A, then bodies B and C will be in
 Temperature Scales
The three most common temperature scales are:
Fahrenheit,
Celsius, and
Kelvin.

Absolute zero: [0 K = - 273 0C]

# the lowest possible temperature
# the temperature at which the motion
of the particles cease
 Temperature Scales
Conversions from one temperature scale to the other are possible using the following relations:
 Examples
If the ice-point and the steam-point temperatures on an unknown scale
X are 50 0X and 200 0X, respectively, then what is the reading in 0X for
a temperature of 60 0C?
Solution:

Intervals in 0C: 100 - 0 = 1000C

Intervals in 0X: 200 - 50 = 1500X

Intervals in 0C = 100 TC - 0 = 100 60 - 0 = 10

Intervals in 0X 150 TX - 50 150 TX - 50 15
 Cont.…
60 - 0 = 2 180 = 2TX - 100 280 = 2TX
TX - 50 3
TX = 140 0X
Heating Effects

[c] Change
[a] Expansion
of
[b] Change of State

Temperature
 Thermal Expansion
[a] Solid Expansion: Increase in size

Linear (1D) Area (2D) Volume (3D)

Length expansion (Δl):
Δl = α l ΔT
where Δl is the increase in length,
α is the cofficient of linear expansion,
l is the intial length, and
ΔT is the change in temperature.
The SI unit of α is 1/K or 1/0C
 Cont.…
Application of length expansion in the construction of :
1] rail way road
2] automatic switch
Bimetallic strip:
consists of two metals of different
coefficients of thermal expansion,
as shown in the figure.

That is, cofficient of linear expansion

of brass is greater than steel.
 Cont.…
Areal expansion (ΔA):
ΔA = β A ΔT
where ΔA is the increase in the area,
β is the cofficient of areal expansion,
A is the intial area and
ΔT is the change in temperature.
The SI unit of β is 1/K or 1/0C.
Note: β = 2α
Volume expansion (ΔV):
ΔV = γ V ΔT
 Cont.…
where ΔV is the increase in the volume,
γ is the cofficient of volume expansion,
V is the intial area and
ΔT is the change in temperature.
The SI unit of γ is 1/K or 1/0C.
Note: γ = 3α
Show that:
γ = 3/2 β
β = 2α and γ=
3α
Take the ratio of γ / β = 3/2, imples γ = 3/2 β
 Cont.…
Q. At 30 oC the volume of an aluminum sphere is 30 cm 3. The
coefficient of linear expansion is 24 x 10 -6 oC-1. If the final volume is
30.5 cm3, what is the final temperature of the aluminum sphere?

Solution:
ΔV = γ V ΔT = 3α V ΔT
(0.5 cm3) = 3 (24 x 10-6) (30 cm3)ΔT

(0.5) = 72 x 3 x 10-5 ΔT

0.5 = 0.00216 ΔT
ΔT = 0.5 / 0.00216 ΔT = 232 0C Tf =
 The Concept Heat and Work
Work, Heat, and Internal Energy
• Work: is a non-spontaneous transfer of energy into or out of a system due to
force acting through a displacement.
• Heat: a form of energy that can be transfered b/n the system and its
surrounding due to temperature difference.
• Internal Energy: the total energy of the particles, that is, the sum of kinetic
and potential energies of molecules and atoms.
• it is all the energy of a system that is associated with its microscopic components—
atoms and molecules
The law of heat exchange:
heat gained a body equals to heat lost by an object if there is no wastage of energy .
[b] Change of Temperature
The heat energy lost or gained by an object can be given by:
Q = cmΔT
 Cont.…
where c is specific heat capacity, m is the mass of a substance, and ΔT
is the change in tempertaure.
Specific heat capacity (c): the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass /1kg of a substance by 1 K.
Heat capacity (C): the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of the whole mass of substance by 1 K.
i.e. C = mc

Problem: If 20 g hot water initially at 80 0C is added to 60 g of cold

water initially at 10 0C, then find the final equilibrium temperature of
the mixture.
 Cont.…
Solution:

Use the law of heat exchange:

Qlost = Qgained
(cmΔT)lost = (cmΔT)gained
(mΔT)lost = (mΔT)gained
20g[80 - T] = 60g[T - 10]

80 - T = 3[T - 10] = 3T - 30
110 = 4T ...........T = 27.5
 Specific Heat and Latent Heat
[c] Change of State:
Latent Heat (L): the amount of heat required during change of state
of a unit mass of a substance at a constant temperature.
• It depends on the nature of the phase change and the properties of the substance

Latent heat can be:

Latent heat of fusion (solid to liquid) and
Latent heat of vaporazation (liquid to gas).
• The Heat energy required to change the phase of a pure substance of mass m at a
constant temperature is given by

where L is the latent heat of the substance

 The positive sign is used if energy is entering the system, and the negative
sign is used if energy is leaving.
 Cont.…

Q. Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of

1g
of ice from −10 0C to steam 110 0C.
[Use: cice = csteam = 0.5 cal/gK, cwater = 1 cal/gK, Lf = 80 cal/g,
 Cont.…
Solution:

QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5

QT = (cmΔT)ice + mLf + (cmΔT)H2O + mLv +

(cmΔT)steam
QT = (0.5)(1)(10)cal + (1)(80)cal + (1)(1)(100)cal + (1)
(540) cal
+ (0.5)(1)(10)cal
QT = 5 cal + 80 cal + 100 cal + 540 cal + 5 cal

QT = 730 cal
 Heat transfer mechanisms:
Conduction:
• due to sucessive collisions of particles
• exchange of kinetic energy between colliding molecules or electrons
• It mainly observed in solids.

Convection:
• due to the actual movements of the particles
• It mainly observed in fluid (Liquid and Gas).

Radiation:
• travel through a vaccum
• is in the form of electromagnetic energy
Heat transfer mechanisms:
 First Law of Thermodynamics
• the total energy (internal energy) has two sources:
Heating and
Work done.

Mathematically, we can describe first law of thermodynamics:

ΔU = ΔW + ΔQ

where ΔU is the change internal energy,

ΔW = work done is on the system, and
ΔQ is heat is added to the system.
 Sign Conventions

1] Work done = Postive (work is done on the system)

= Negative (work is done by the system)

2] Heat = Postive (heat is added to the system)

= Negative (heat is removed from the sysytem)

3] Change in internal enegy = Positive (the temperature increases)

= Negative (the tempertaure decreases)
= Zero (temperature is constant)
 Example
Q. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal
energy decreases by 500 J. At the same time, 220 J of work is done
on the system. Find the energy transferred to or from it by heat.
Solution
ΔU = ΔW + ΔQ

-500 J = 220 J + ΔQ
-500 J - 220 J = ΔQ
ΔQ = - 770 J
= 770 J lost by the
system
 Thermodynamics Processes and FLT
[1] Isobaric: Pressure is constant
FLT: ΔU = ΔQ + ΔW
ΔW = FΔx
ΔW = PAΔx
ΔW = PΔV
ΔU = ΔQ - PΔV..........ΔW = - PΔV
[The volume decreases as the pressure increases]
[2] Isochoric: Volume is constant
FLT: ΔU = ΔW + ΔQ
V = constant, ΔV = 0
ΔU = 0 + ΔQ
ΔU = ΔQ
 Cont.…
P The area of PV curve equals
to the work done

V
[3] Isothermal: Temperature is constant
FLT: ΔU = ΔQ + ΔW
0 = ΔQ - PΔV..........ΔW = - PΔV
ΔQ = PΔV

[4] Adiabatic: Heat is neither added or removed from the system

FLT: ΔU = ΔW + ΔQ [ΔQ = 0]
ΔU = ΔW
 Cont.…
Note: For isothermal: the work done is given by:
ΔW = nRTln(Vi/Vf)
Example
A 0.5 mole of gas at temperature 300 K expands isothermally from an initial
volume of 2 L to 6 L
(a) What is the work done by the gas?
(b) Estimate the heat added to the gas?
Solution:
[a] ΔW = nRTln(Vi/Vf)

ΔW = -

ΔW = - 1.369 kJ
[b] ΔU = ΔQ + ΔW………… ΔQ – 1.369 kJ = 0…………… ΔQ = 1.369 kJ
 Cont.…
5] Cyclic Process:
FLT: ΔU = ΔW + ΔQ
0 = ΔQ - PΔV..........ΔW = - PΔV
ΔQ = PΔV
6] Isolated:
FLT: ΔU = ΔW + ΔQ
ΔW = ΔQ = 0
ΔU = 0
7] Insulated:
FLT: ΔU = ΔW + ΔQ
ΔQ = 0
ΔU = ΔW
 Example
Q. A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 0.8 atm from 9.0 L
to
2.0 L. In the process, 400J of energy leaves the gas by heat.
(a) What is the work done on the gas?
(b) What is the change in its internal energy?

Solution:
a] ΔW = - PΔV........................................1atm = 10 5 Pa
= - 0.8(105) (-7)(10-3) J...................1m3 = 103 L
= + 560 J
b] ΔU = ΔQ + ΔW
= -400 J + 560 J
 Example
Suppose 1 g of water vaporizes isobarically at atmospheric pressure (1 x 10 5 Pa).
Its volume in the liquid state is Vi = Vliquid = 1 cm3 and its volume in the vapor
state is Vf = Vvapor = 1.5 cm3 . Find the work done in the expansion and the change
in internal energy of the system. Ignore any mixing of the steam and the
surrounding air; imagine that the steam simply pushes the surrounding air out of
the way. (Lv = 2.26 x 106 J/kg)
ΔW = - pΔV (Expansion or work done by the system)
ΔW = - p(V2 - V1)
ΔW = - (1 x 105 Pa) (1.5 cm3 – 1.0 cm3)
ΔW = - (1 x 105 Pa)(0.5 x 10 - 6 m3) = - 0.05 J
ΔQ = mLV
ΔQ = 1g (2.26 x 106 J/kg)
ΔQ = 2.26 x 103 J [1kg = 1000g]
 Example
A gas is taken through the cycle A → B → C → A, as shown. What is the net work
done by the gas?
Solution:
Step: 1
W(A to B) = - ½(5)(4)(100)J - (2)(5)(100)J
= -1000 J – 1000 J
= -2000J [Expansion]
Step 2: W(B to C) = 0 [Volume is constant]
Step 3:
W (C t o A) = +(2)(5)(100)J [ Compression]
= + 1000 J
Thus,
W(Total) = -2000 J + 1000 J
= - 1000 J