Active

Active Microwave
Microwave (RADAR)
(RADAR)

John
John R.R. Jensen
Jensen
Department
Department ofof Geography
Geography
University
University of
of South
South Carolina
Carolina
Columbia,
Columbia, South
South Carolina
Carolina 29208
29208
 Passive
Passive and
and Active
Active Remote
Remote
Sensing
Sensing Systems
Systems

Passive
Passiveremote
remotesensing
sensingsystems
systemsrecord
recordelectromagnetic
electromagneticenergy
energythat
thatwas
was
reflected
reflected(e.g.,
(e.g.,blue,
blue,green,
green,red,
red,and
andnear-infrared
near-infraredlight)
light)or
oremitted
emitted(e.g.,
(e.g.,
thermal
thermalinfrared
infraredenergy)
energy)from
fromthethesurface
surfaceof
ofthe
theEarth.
Earth.There
Thereare
arealso
alsoactive
active
remote
remotesensing
sensingsystems
systemsthat
thatare
arenot
notdependent
dependentononthe
theSun’s
Sun’selectromagnetic
electromagnetic
energy
energyororthe
thethermal
thermalproperties
propertiesofofthe
theEarth.
Earth.

Active
Activeremote
remotesensors
sensorscreate
createtheir
theirown
ownelectromagnetic
electromagneticenergy
energythat
that1)
1)isis
transmitted
transmittedfrom
fromthe thesensor
sensortoward
towardthetheterrain
terrain(and
(andisislargely
largelyunaffected
unaffectedby by
the
theatmosphere),
atmosphere),2) 2)interacts
interactswith
withthe
theterrain
terrainproducing
producingaabackscatter
backscatterof
of
energy,
energy,and
and3)3)isisrecorded
recordedbybythe
theremote
remotesensor’s
sensor’sreceiver.
receiver.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Active
Active Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing Systems
Systems

The
Themost
mostwidely
widelyused
usedactive
activeremote
remotesensing
sensingsystems
systemsinclude:
include:

••active
activemicrowave
microwave(RADAR),
(RADAR),which
whichisisbased
basedon
onthe
thetransmission
transmissionofoflong-
long-
wavelength
wavelengthmicrowaves
microwaves(e.g.,
(e.g.,33––25
25cm)
cm)through
throughthe
theatmosphere
atmosphereand
and
then
thenrecording
recordingthe
theamount
amountof
ofenergy
energyback-scattered
back-scatteredfrom
fromthe
theterrain;
terrain;

••LIDAR
LIDAR,,which
whichisisbased
basedononthe
thetransmission
transmissionofofrelatively
relativelyshort-
short-
wavelength
wavelengthlaser
laserlight
light(e.g., 0.90m)
(e.g.,0.90 m)and
andthen
thenrecording
recordingthe
theamount
amountof
of
light
lightback-scattered
back-scatteredfrom
fromthe
theterrain;
terrain;and
and

••SONAR
SONAR,,which
whichisisbased
basedon
onthe
thetransmission
transmissionof
ofsound
soundwaves
wavesthrough
throughaa
water
watercolumn
columnand
andthen
thenrecording
recordingthe
theamount
amountofofenergy
energyback-scattered
back-scattered
from the bottom or from objects within the water column.
from the bottom or from objects within the water column.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Sending
Sending and
and Receiving
Receiving aa Pulse
Pulse of
of Microwave
Microwave
EMR
EMR -- System
System Components
Components
The
Thediscussion
discussionisisbased
basedinitially
initiallyon
onthe
thesystem
systemcomponents
componentsand
and
functions
functionsof
ofaareal
realaperture
apertureside-looking
side-lookingairborne
airborneradar
radar(SLAR).
(SLAR).The
The
discussion
discussionthen
thenexpands
expandstotoinclude
includesynthetic
syntheticaperture
apertureradars
radars(SAR)
(SAR)
that
thathave
haveimproved
improvedcapabilities.
capabilities.
Jensen
Jensen, ,2000
2000
 Side-looking
Side-looking Airborne
Airborne
RADAR
RADAR (SLAR)
(SLAR) System
System

a.
b.
antenna
backscattered
transmitted
Transmitter
antenna
CRT
Receiver
Duplexer
Pulse
a.
b.
antenna
pulse
Display pulse
backscattered
transmitted
Transmitter
antenna
CRT
Receiver
Duplexer
Pulse
or
pulse
Display pulse
or
Digital
Generator
• sendsRecorder
and
Digital
Generator
• sendsRecorder
and
receives
receives

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Sending
Sending and
and Receiving
Receiving aa Pulse
Pulse of
of Microwave
Microwave
EMR
EMR -- System
System Components
Components
The
Thepulse
pulseof
ofelectromagnetic
electromagneticradiation
radiationsent
sentout
outby
bythe
thetransmitter
transmitterthrough
through
the
theantenna
antennaisisof
ofaaspecific
specificwavelength
wavelengthand
andduration
duration(i.e.,
(i.e.,itithas
hasaa pulse
pulse
length
lengthmeasured
measuredin microseconds,sec).
inmicroseconds, sec).

•• The
Thewavelengths
wavelengthsare
aremuch
muchlonger
longerthan
thanvisible,
visible,near-infrared,
near-infrared,mid-
mid-
infrared,
infrared,or
orthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredenergy
energyused
usedin
inother
otherremote
remotesensing
sensingsystems.
systems.
Therefore,
Therefore,microwave
microwaveenergy
energyisisusually
usuallymeasured
measuredin incentimeters
centimetersrather
rather
than
thanmicrometers.
micrometers.

••The
Theunusual
unusualnames
namesassociated
associatedwith
withthe
theradar
radarwavelengths
wavelengths(e.g.,
(e.g., K,
K,Ka, Ka,
Ku,
Ku,X,
X,C,
C,S,S,L,
L,and
andPP)) are
arean
anartifact
artifactof
ofthe
theoriginal
originalsecret
secretwork
workononradar
radar
remote
remotesensing
sensingwhen
whenititwas
wascustomary
customaryto touse
usethe
thealphabetic
alphabeticdescriptor
descriptor
instead of the actual wavelength or frequency.
instead of the actual wavelength or frequency.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Active
Active Microwave
Microwave (RADAR)
(RADAR)
Commonly
Commonly Use
Use Frequencies
Frequencies

11.0
Thermal
Middle-IR
Visible
10
Near-infrared
UV cm
GHz
mm
mGHz
cm
μmμm infrared
μm
Microwave
P
L
S
C
X
K
0.2
u1UV
a 1.0
Thermal
Middle-IR
Visible
10 Bands
Near-infrared
u cm
P
L
S
C
X
K GHz
mm
m
0.2
a GHz
cm
μm infrared
Microwave Bands

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADARWavelengths
Wavelengthsand
andFrequencies
Frequenciesused
usedinin
Active
ActiveMicrowave
MicrowaveRemote
RemoteSensing
SensingInvestigations
Investigations

Band
BandDesignations
Designations
(common
(commonwavelengths
wavelengths Wavelength(()) Frequency
Wavelength Frequency(())
shown
shownininparentheses)
parentheses) inincm
cm ininGHz
GHz
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
KK 1.18
1.18--1.67
1.67 26.5
26.5toto18.0
18.0
KKa (0.86 cm) 0.75
0.75--1.18 40.0
40.0toto26.5
a (0.86 cm) 1.18 26.5
KKu 1.67
1.67--2.4
2.4 18.0
18.0toto12.5
12.5
u
XX(3.0
(3.0and
and3.2
3.2cm)
cm) 2.4
2.4 --3.8
3.8 12.5
12.5--8.0
8.0
CC(7.5,
(7.5,6.0
6.0cm)
cm) 3.8
3.8 --7.5
7.5 8.0
8.0 --4.0
4.0
SS(8.0,
(8.0,9.6,
9.6,12.6
12.6cm)
cm) 7.5
7.5 --15.0
15.0 4.0
4.0 --2.0
2.0
LL(23.5,
(23.5,24.0,
24.0,25.0
25.0cm)
cm) 15.0
15.0--30.0
30.0 2.0
2.0 --1.0
1.0
PP(68.0 Jensen,
Jensen,2000
(68.0cm)
cm) 30.0
30.0--100
100 1.0
1.0 --0.3
0.3 2000
 SIR-C/X-SAR
SIR-C/X-SAR ImagesImages of
of
aa Portion
Portion of
of Rondonia,
Rondonia,
Brazil,
Brazil, Obtained
Obtained on
on
April
April 10,
10, 1994
1994

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Primary
Primary Advantages
Advantages ofof RADAR
RADAR
Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing of
of the
the Environment
Environment

••Active
Activemicrowave
microwaveenergy
energypenetrates
penetratesclouds
cloudsand
andcan
canbe
bean
an
all-weather
all-weatherremote
remotesensing
sensingsystem.
system.
••Synoptic
Synopticviews
viewsofoflarge
largeareas,
areas,for
formapping
mappingatat1:25,000
1:25,000toto
1:400,000;
1:400,000;cloud-shrouded
cloud-shroudedcountries
countriesmaymaybebeimaged.
imaged.
••Coverage
Coveragecan canbe
beobtained
obtainedatatuser-specified
user-specifiedtimes,
times,even
evenatatnight
night..
••Permits
Permitsimaging
imagingatatshallow
shallowlook
lookangles
angles,,resulting
resultingin
indifferent
different
perspectives
perspectivesthat
thatcannot
cannotalways
alwaysbe beobtained
obtainedusing
usingaerial
aerial
photography.
photography.
••Senses
Sensesininwavelengths
wavelengthsoutside
outsidethethevisible
visibleand
andinfrared
infraredregions
regions
of
ofthe
theelectromagnetic
electromagneticspectrum
spectrum,,providing
providinginformation
informationon on
surface
surfaceroughness,
roughness,dielectric
dielectricproperties,
properties,and
andmoisture
moisturecontent.
content.
Jensen, 2000
Jensen, 2000
 Secondary
Secondary Advantages
Advantages of of RADAR
RADAR
Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing of
of the
the Environment
Environment

••May
Maypenetrate
penetratevegetation,
vegetation,sand,
sand,andandsurface
surfacelayers
layersofofsnow.
snow.
••Has
Hasits
itsown
ownillumination
illumination, ,and
andthe
theangle
angleofofillumination
illuminationcancanbe becontrolled.
controlled.
••Enables
Enablesresolution
resolutiontotobe
beindependent
independentofofdistance
distancetotothe
theobject
object, ,with
withthe
the
size
size
of
ofaaresolution
resolutioncell
cellbeing
beingasassmall
smallas as11xx11m. m.
••Images
Imagescancanbebeproduced
producedfromfromdifferent
differenttypes
typesofofpolarized
polarizedenergy
energy(HH,
(HH,
HV,
HV,VV,VV,VH).
VH).
••May
Mayoperate
operatesimultaneously
simultaneouslyininseveral
severalwavelengths
wavelengths(frequencies)
(frequencies)and andthus
thus
has
hasmulti-frequency
multi-frequencypotential
potential. .
••Can
Canmeasure
measureocean
oceanwave
waveproperties
properties, ,even
evenfrom
fromorbital
orbitalaltitudes.
altitudes.
••Can
Canproduce
produceoverlapping
overlappingimages
imagessuitable
suitablefor
forstereoscopic
stereoscopicviewing
viewingandand
radargrammetry
radargrammetry. .
••Supports
Supportsinterferometric
interferometricoperation
operationusing
usingtwotwoantennas
antennasforfor3-D
3-Dmapping,
mapping,
and
andanalysis
analysisofofincident-angle
incident-anglesignatures
signaturesof ofobjects.
objects. Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Radar
Radar Nomenclature
Nomenclature
••nadir
nadir
••azimuth
azimuthflight
flightdirection
direction
••look
lookdirection
direction
••range
range(near
(nearand
andfar)
far)
••depression angle(())
depressionangle
••incidence angle(())
incidenceangle
••altitude
altitudeabove-ground-level,
above-ground-level,HH
••polarization
polarization

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
RADAR
RADAR
logic
logic

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Azimuth
Azimuth Direction
Direction

••The
Theaircraft
aircrafttravels
travelsin
inaastraight
straightline
linethat
thatisiscalled
calledthe
the azimuth
azimuth
flight
flightdirection
direction..

••Pulses
Pulsesofofactive
activemicrowave
microwaveelectromagnetic
electromagneticenergy
energyilluminate
illuminate
strips
stripsof
ofthe
theterrain
terrainatatright
rightangles
angles(orthogonal)
(orthogonal)totothe
theaircraft’s
aircraft’s
direction
directionofoftravel,
travel,which
whichisiscalled
calledthe
therange
rangeor
orlook
lookdirection
direction..

•• The
Theterrain
terrainilluminated
illuminatednearest
nearestthe
theaircraft
aircraftin
inthe
theline
lineof
ofsight
sight
isiscalled
calledthe
thenear-range
near-range..The
Thefarthest
farthestpoint
pointof
ofterrain
terrain
illuminated
illuminatedby bythe
thepulse
pulseof
ofenergy
energyisiscalled
calledthe
thefar-range
far-range..
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Radar
Radar Nomenclature
Nomenclature
••nadir
nadir
••azimuth
azimuthflight
flightdirection
direction
••look
lookdirection
direction
••range
range(near
(nearand
andfar)
far)
••depression angle(())
depressionangle
••incidence angle(())
incidenceangle
••altitude
altitudeabove-ground-level,
above-ground-level,HH
••polarization
polarization

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Range
Range Direction
Direction

The
Therange
rangeor orlook
lookdirection
directionforforany
anyradar
radarimage
imageisisthe
thedirection
direction
of
ofthe
theradar
radarillumination
illuminationthat
thatisisatatright
rightangles
anglesto
tothe
thedirection
direction
the
theaircraft
aircraftor
orspacecraft
spacecraftisistraveling.
traveling.

••Generally,
Generally,objects
objectsthat
thattrend
trend(or(orstrike)
strike)in
inaadirection
directionthat
thatisis
orthogonal
orthogonal(perpendicular)
(perpendicular)to tothe
therange
rangeor orlook
lookdirection
directionare
are
enhanced
enhancedmuch
muchmore
morethan
thanthose
thoseobjects
objectsininthe
theterrain
terrainthat
thatlie
lie
parallel
parallelto
tothe
thelook
lookdirection.
direction.Consequently,
Consequently,linearlinearfeatures
featuresthat
that
appear
appeardark
darkororare
areimperceptible
imperceptiblein inaaradar
radarimage
imageusing
usingone
one
look
lookdirection
directionmay
mayappear
appearbright
brightininanother
anotherradar
radarimage
imagewith
withaa
different
differentlook
lookdirection
direction..
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
b.sX
a.
s
X
b.- -band,
look
a.
look
band, HHHH
direction
band,
band, HHHH
direction
polarization
polarization
polarization
polarization
Look
Look Direction
Direction

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Depression
Depression Angle
Angle

The
Thedepression angle(())isisthe
depressionangle theangle
anglebetween
betweenaahorizontal
horizontal
plane
planeextending
extendingout
outfrom
fromthe theaircraft
aircraftfuselage
fuselageand
andthe
the
electromagnetic
electromagneticpulse
pulseof
ofenergy
energyfromfromthe
theantenna
antennato
toaaspecific
specific
point
pointon
onthe
theground.
ground.

••The
Thedepression
depressionangle
anglewithin
withinaastrip
stripof
ofilluminated
illuminatedterrain
terrain
varies
variesfrom
fromthe
thenear-range
near-rangedepression
depressionangle
angletotothe
thefar-range
far-range
depression
depressionangle.
angle.The
Theaverage
averagedepression
depressionangle
angleof
ofaaradar
radar
image
imageisiscomputed
computedby byselecting
selectingaapoint
pointmidway
midwaybetween
betweenthethe
near
nearand
andfar-range
far-rangeininthe
theimage
imagestrip.
strip.Summaries
Summariesof ofradar
radar
systems
systemsoften
oftenonly
onlyreport
reportthe
theaverage
averagedepression
depressionangle.
angle.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Incident
Incident Angle
Angle

The
Theincident angle(())isisthe
incidentangle theangle
anglebetween
betweenthetheradar
radarpulse
pulseof of
EMR
EMRand andaaline
lineperpendicular
perpendicularto tothe
theEarth’s
Earth’ssurface
surfacewhere
whereitit
makes
makescontact.
contact.When
Whenthe theterrain
terrainisisflat,
flat,the
theincident angle(())isis
incidentangle
the complement((==90
thecomplement 90--))ofofthe
thedepression angle(().).IfIfthe
depressionangle the
terrain
terrainisissloped,
sloped,there
thereisisnonorelationship
relationshipbetween
betweendepression
depression
angle
angleand
andincident
incidentangle.
angle.The Theincident
incidentangle
anglebest
bestdescribes
describesthe the
relationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthetheradar
radarbeam
beamand andsurface
surfaceslope.
slope.

••Many
Manymathematical
mathematicalradar
radarstudies
studiesassume
assumethe
theterrain
terrainsurface
surfaceisis
flat
flat(horizontal)
(horizontal)therefore,
therefore,the
theincident
incidentangle
angleisisassumed
assumedtotobe
be
the
thecomplement
complementof ofthe
thedepression
depressionangle.
angle.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Polarization
Polarization

Unpolarized
Unpolarizedenergy
energyvibrates
vibratesin
inall
allpossible
possibledirections
directions
perpendicular
perpendicularto
tothe
thedirection
directionof
oftravel.
travel.

••Radar
Radarantennas
antennassend
sendand
andreceive
receivepolarized
polarizedenergy.
energy.This
This
means
meansthat
thatthe
thepulse
pulseofofenergy
energyisisfiltered
filteredso
sothat
thatits
itselectrical
electrical
wave
wavevibrations
vibrationsareareonly
onlyin
inaasingle
singleplane
planethat
thatisisperpendicular
perpendicular
to
tothe
thedirection
directionofoftravel.
travel.The
Thepulse
pulseof ofelectromagnetic
electromagneticenergy
energy
sent
sentout
outbybythe
theantenna
antennamaymaybebevertically
verticallyor
orhorizontally
horizontally
polarized
polarized..
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Polarization
Polarization

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
b.
a.
K
N aa- -direction
look
b.
a.
N
K
look band,
band,HV HH
directionHHpolarization
HV polarization
Polarization
Polarization

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Polarization
Polarization

The
Thetransmitted
transmittedpulse pulseof ofelectromagnetic
electromagneticenergy
energyinteracts
interactswith
with
the
theterrain
terrainandandsome
someof ofititisisback-scattered
back-scatteredatatthe
thespeed
speedofoflight
light
toward
towardthe
theaircraft
aircraftor orspacecraft
spacecraftwhere
whereititonce
onceagain
againmust
mustpass
pass
through
throughaafilter.
filter.IfIfthe
theantenna
antennaaccepts
acceptsthe
theback-scattered
back-scattered
energy,
energy,ititisisrecorded.
recorded.Various
Varioustypes
typesofofback-scattered
back-scatteredpolarized
polarized
energy
energymay
maybe berecorded
recordedby bythetheradar.
radar.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Polarization
Polarization

ItItisispossible
possibleto:
to:

••send
sendvertically
verticallypolarized
polarizedenergy
energyand
andreceive
receiveonly
onlyvertically
vertically
polarized
polarizedenergy
energy(designated
(designatedVV
VV),),

••send
sendhorizontal
horizontaland
andreceive
receivehorizontally
horizontallypolarized
polarizedenergy
energy((HH
HH),),

••send
sendhorizontal
horizontaland
andreceive
receivevertically
verticallypolarized
polarizedenergy
energy((HV
HV),),or
or

••send
sendvertical
verticaland
andreceive
receivehorizontally
horizontallypolarized
polarizedenergy
energy((VH
VH).).
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Polarization
Polarization

•• HH
HH and
and VV
VV configurations
configurations produce
produce like-polarized
like-polarized
radar
radar imagery.
imagery.

•• HV
HV and
and VH
VH configurations
configurations produce
produce cross-polarized
cross-polarized
imagery.
imagery.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Slant-range
Slant-range versus
versus Ground-Range
Ground-Range Geometry
Geometry

Radar
Radarimagery
imageryhas hasaadifferent
differentgeometry
geometrythan
thanthat
thatproduced
producedby
bymost
most
conventional
conventionalremote
remotesensor
sensorsystems,
systems,such
suchasascameras,
cameras,multispectral
multispectral
scanners
scannersor
orarea-array
area-arraydetectors.
detectors.Therefore,
Therefore,one
onemust
mustbebevery
verycareful
carefulwhen
when
attempting
attemptingtotomake
makeradargrammetric
radargrammetricmeasurements.
measurements.

••Uncorrected
Uncorrectedradarradarimagery
imageryisisdisplayed
displayedininwhat
whatisiscalled
calledslant-range
slant-range
geometry
geometry, ,i.e.,
i.e.,ititisisbased
basedon
onthe
theactual
actualdistance
distancefrom
fromthe
theradar
radartotoeach
eachof
ofthe
the
respective
respectivefeatures
featuresininthe thescene.
scene.

•• ItItisispossible
possibletotoconvert
convertthe
theslant-range
slant-rangedisplay
displayinto
intothethetrue
trueground-range
ground-range
display
displayon onthe
thex-axis
x-axissosothat
thatfeatures
featuresininthe
thescene
sceneare
areinintheir
theirproper
proper
planimetric
planimetric(x,y)(x,y)position
positionrelative
relativetotoone
oneanother
anotherininthe
thefinal
finalradar
radarimage.
image.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Radar
Radar Nomenclature
Nomenclature
••nadir
nadir
••azimuth
azimuthflight
flightdirection
direction
••look
lookdirection
direction
••range
range(near
(nearand
andfar)
far)
••depression angle(())
depressionangle
••incidence angle(())
incidenceangle
••altitude
altitudeabove-ground-level,
above-ground-level,HH
••polarization
polarization

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Resolution
Resolution

To
Todetermine
determinethe thespatial
spatialresolution
resolutionatatany
anypoint
pointininaaradar
radar
image,
image,ititisisnecessary
necessarytotocompute
computethe theresolution
resolutionin intwo
two
dimensions:
dimensions:the therange
rangeand
andazimuth
azimuthresolutions.
resolutions.Radar
Radarisisinin
effect
effectaaranging
rangingdevice
devicethat
thatmeasures
measuresthethedistance
distanceto toobjects
objectsin in
the
theterrain
terrainby bymeans
meansof ofsending
sendingoutoutand
andreceiving
receivingpulses
pulsesofof
active
activemicrowave
microwaveenergy.
energy.TheTherange
rangeresolution
resolutionin inthe
theacross-
across-
track
trackdirection
directionisisproportional
proportionalto tothe
thelength
lengthofofthe
themicrowave
microwave
pulse.
pulse.The
Theshorter
shorterthe
thepulse
pulselength,
length,the
thefiner
finerthe
therange
range
resolution.
resolution.Pulse
Pulselength
lengthisisaafunction
functionofofthe
thespeed
speedof oflight
light((cc))
multiplied
multipliedby bythe
theduration
durationof ofthe transmission(().).
thetransmission
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Resolution
Resolution

To
Todetermine
determinethe thespatial
spatialresolution
resolutionatatany
anypoint
pointininaaradar
radar
image,
image,ititisisnecessary
necessarytotocompute
computethe theresolution
resolutionin intwo
two
dimensions:
dimensions:the therange
rangeand
andazimuth
azimuthresolutions.
resolutions.Radar
Radarisisinin
effect
effectaaranging
rangingdevice
devicethat
thatmeasures
measuresthethedistance
distanceto toobjects
objectsin in
the
theterrain
terrainby bymeans
meansof ofsending
sendingoutoutand
andreceiving
receivingpulses
pulsesofof
active
activemicrowave
microwaveenergy.
energy.TheTherange
rangeresolution
resolutionin inthe
theacross-
across-
track
trackdirection
directionisisproportional
proportionalto tothe
thelength
lengthofofthe
themicrowave
microwave
pulse.
pulse.The
Theshorter
shorterthe
thepulse
pulselength,
length,the
thefiner
finerthe
therange
range
resolution.
resolution.Pulse
Pulselength
lengthisisaafunction
functionofofthe
thespeed
speedof oflight
light((cc))
multiplied
multipliedby bythe
theduration
durationof ofthe transmission(().).
thetransmission
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Range
Range Resolution
Resolution

The
Therange
rangeresolution
resolution((RRr)r)atatany
anypoint
pointbetween
betweenthe
thenear
nearand
andfar-range
far-rangeof ofthe
the
illuminated
illuminatedstrip stripcan
canbe
becomputed
computedififthe thedepression angle(())of
depressionangle ofthe
thesensor
sensoratat
that
thatlocation
locationand andthe
thepulse length(())are
pulselength areknown.
known.ItItisispossible
possibletotoconvert
convert
pulse
pulselength
lengthinto intodistance
distanceby bymultiplying
multiplyingitittimes
timesthe
thespeed
speedof oflight
light((cc==33xx
10
108mmsec
8
sec-1).).The
-1
Theresulting
resultingdistance
distanceisismeasured
measuredininthe
theslant-range
slant-rangepreviously
previously
discussed.
discussed.Because
Becausewe wewant
wanttotoknow
knowthe therange
rangeresolution
resolutionininthe theground-
ground-
range
range(not
(notthe theslant-range)
slant-range)ititisisnecessary
necessarytotoconvert
convertslant-range
slant-rangetotoground-
ground-
range
rangebybydividing
dividingthetheslant-range
slant-rangedistance
distanceby bythe
thecosine
cosineof ofthe
thedepression
depression
angle(().).Therefore,
angle Therefore,thetheequation
equationfor forcomputing
computingthetherange
rangeresolution
resolutionis: is:

 xx cc
RRr == __________
__________ Jensen,
r Jensen,2000
2000
cos
22cos
 Range
Range
Resolution
Resolution

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Azimuth
Azimuth Resolution
Resolution

Thus
Thusfar
farwe
wehave
haveonly
onlyidentified
identifiedthe
thelength
lengthin
inmeters
metersofofan
an
active
activemicrowave
microwaveresolution
resolutionelement
elementatataaspecific
specificdepression
depression
angle
angleand
andpulse
pulselength
lengthin
inthe
therange
range(across-track)
(across-track)direction.
direction.To
To
know
knowboth
boththe
thelength
lengthand
andwidth
widthof
ofthe
theresolution
resolutionelement,
element,wewe
must
mustalso
alsocompute
computethethewidth
widthofofthe
theresolution
resolutionelement
elementininthe
the
direction
directionthe
theaircraft
aircraftor
orspacecraft
spacecraftisisflying
flying——the
the azimuth
azimuth
direction
direction..
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
RADAR
RADAR
logic
logic

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Azimuth
Azimuth Resolution
Resolution

Azimuth
Azimuthresolution
resolution((RRa)a)isisdetermined
determinedby
bycomputing
computingthe
thewidth
widthofofthe
theterrain
terrain
strip
stripthat
thatisisilluminated
illuminatedby bythe
theradar
radarbeam
beam. .

••Real
Realaperture
apertureactive
activemicrowave
microwaveradars
radarsproduce
produceaalobe-shaped
lobe-shapedbeambeamwhich
which
isisnarrower
narrowerininthethenear-range
near-rangeandandspreads
spreadsout
outininthe
thefar-range.
far-range.Basically,
Basically,the
the
angular
angularbeam
beamwidthwidthisisdirectly
directlyproportional
proportionaltotothethewavelength
wavelengthof ofthe
the
transmitted
transmittedpulse
pulseof ofenergy,
energy,i.e.,
i.e.,the
thelonger
longerthe
thewavelength,
wavelength,thethewider
widerthe
the
beam
beamwidth,
width,andandthe
theshorter
shorterthe
thewavelength,
wavelength,thethenarrower
narrowerthethebeam
beamwidth.
width.
Therefore,
Therefore,ininreal
realaperture
aperture(brute
(bruteforce)
force)radars
radarsaashorter
shorterwavelength
wavelengthpulse
pulse
will
willresult
resultininimproved
improvedazimuth
azimuthresolution.
resolution.Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,the theshorter
shorterthe
the
wavelength,
wavelength,the thepoorer
poorerthetheatmospheric
atmosphericand andvegetation
vegetationpenetration
penetration
capability.
capability.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Azimuth
Azimuth Resolution
Resolution

Fortunately,
Fortunately,the thebeam
beamwidth
widthisisalso
alsoinversely
inverselyproportional
proportionaltotoantenna
antennalength
length
((LL).).This
Thismeans
meansthat
thatthe
thelonger
longerthetheradar
radarantenna
antenna, ,the
thenarrower
narrowerthe
thebeam
beam
width
widthand andthe
thehigher
higherthe
theazimuth
azimuthresolution.
resolution.The
Therelationship
relationshipbetween
between
wavelength(())and
wavelength andantenna
antennalength
length((LL))isissummarized
summarizedbelow,
below,which
whichcancanbe
be
used
usedtotocompute
computethetheazimuth
azimuthresolution:
resolution:

SS xx 
RRa == ___________
___________
a
LL

where
whereSSisisthe
theslant-range
slant-rangedistance
distancetotothe
thepoint
pointof
ofinterest.
interest.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Azimuth
Azimuth
Resolution
Resolution

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Relief
Relief Displacement,
Displacement, Image
Image
Foreshortening,
Foreshortening, and
and Shadowing
Shadowing

Geometric
Geometric distortions
distortions exist
exist in
in almost
almost
all
all radar
radar imagery,
imagery, including
including ::

•• foreshortening
foreshortening,,

•• layover
layover,, and
and

•• shadowing
shadowing..
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Forshortening,
Forshortening,
Layover,
Layover, and
and
Shadow
Shadow

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Relief
Relief Displacement:
Displacement:
Foreshortening
Foreshortening and
and Layover
Layover

When
Whenthe
theterrain
terrainisisflat,
flat,ititisisaaeasy
easytotouse
usethe
theappropriate
appropriateequation
equationtoto
convert
convertaaslant-range
slant-rangeradar
radarimageimageinto
intoaaground-range
ground-rangeradar
radarimage
imagethat
thatisis
planimetrically
planimetricallycorrect
correctininx,y.x,y.However,
However,whenwhentrees,
trees,tall
tallbuildings,
buildings,or
or
mountains
mountainsare
arepresent
presentininthe thescene,
scene,radar
radarrelief
reliefdisplacement
displacementoccurs.
occurs.

••In
Inradar
radarrelief
reliefdisplacement
displacement, ,the
thehorizontal
horizontaldisplacement
displacementof ofan
anobject
objectinin
the
theimage
imagecaused
causedby bythe
theobject’s
object’selevation
elevationisisininaadirection
directiontoward
towardthe
theradar
radar
antenna.
antenna.Because
Becausethe theradar
radarimage
imageisisformed
formedininthe therange
range(cross-track)
(cross-track)
direction,
direction,the
thehigher
higherthe
theobject,
object,the
thecloser
closerititisistotothe
theradar
radarantenna,
antenna,and
and
therefore
thereforethe
thesooner
sooner(in(intime)
time)ititisisdetected
detectedon onthetheradar
radarimage.
image.This
This
contrasts
contrastssharply
sharplywith
withrelief
reliefdisplacement
displacementininoptical opticalaerial
aerialphotography
photography
where
wherethe
therelief
reliefdisplacement
displacementisisradially
radiallyoutward
outwardfrom fromthetheprincipal
principalpoint
point
(center)
(center)of
ofaaphotograph.
photograph.The Theelevation-induced
elevation-induceddistortionsdistortionsininradar
radarimagery
imagery
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
are
arereferred
referredtotoas
asforeshortening
foreshorteningand andlayover
layover. .
 RADAR
RADAR Relief
Relief Displacement:
Displacement: Foreshortening
Foreshortening

All
Allterrain
terrainthat
thathas
hasaaslope
slopeinclined
inclinedtoward
towardthe theradarradarwill
willappear
appear
compressed
compressedor orforeshortened
foreshortenedrelative
relativeto
toslopes
slopesinclined
inclinedaway
away
from
fromthe
theradar.
radar.The
Theforeshortening
foreshorteningfactor
factor,,FFf f,,isisapproximately:
approximately:

sin((--))
FFf ==sin
f
where
wherethetheincident angle
incidentangle isisthe
theangle
anglebetween
betweenthe thevertical
vertical
plane
planeatatnadir
nadirand
andaaline
linethat
thatlinks
linksthe theimaging
imagingradar
radarantenna
antennatoto
aafeature
featureononthe
theground,
ground,and andisisthe theslope
slopeangle
angleofofthe
thesurface.
surface.
Alpha positive((+))where
Alphaisispositive wherethe theslope
slopeisisinclined
inclinedtoward
towardthe
+
the
radar
radar (foreslope), and negative ())where
(foreslope), and negative ( --
wherethetheslope
slopeisisinclined
inclined
away
awayfrom
fromitit(backslope).
(backslope).
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
d.
c.
N - band
b.
a.
X
Aerial
look L-band
C-band
direction
Photograph
JERS-1
ERS-1
d.
c.
Foreshortening
N
b. - band
a.
X
Aerial
look L-band
C-band
direction
Photograph
JERS-1
ERS-1

Foreshortening
depression angle =54˚
=67˚
depression angle =54˚
=67˚
look
look angle
angle == 23˚
36˚
look
look angle
angle == 23˚
36˚

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Foreshortening
Foreshortening isis Influenced
Influenced by:
by:

••object
objectheight
height::The
Thegreater
greaterthe
theheight
heightofofthe
theobject
objectabove
abovelocallocal
datum,
datum,the
thegreater
greaterthe
theforeshortening.
foreshortening.
••depression
depressionangle
angle(or
(orincident
incidentangle):
angle):The
Thegreater
greaterthe
the
depression angle(())or
depressionangle orsmaller
smallerthe
theincident angle((),),the
incidentangle the
greater
greaterthe
theforeshortening.
foreshortening.
••location
locationofofobjects
objectsin inthe
theacross-track
across-trackrange
range::Features
Featuresin inthe
the
near-range
near-rangeportion
portionof ofthe
theswath
swatharearegenerally
generallyforeshortened
foreshortened
more
morethan
thanidentical
identicalfeatures
featuresininthe
thefar-range.
far-range.Foreshortening
Foreshortening
causes
causesfeatures
featurestotoappear
appearto tohave
havesteeper
steeperslopes
slopesthan
thanthey
they
actually
actuallyhave
haveininthe
thenear-range
near-rangeof ofthe
theradar
radarimage
imageand
andto tohave
have
shallower
shallowerslopes
slopesthan
thanthey
theyactually
actuallyhave
haveininthe
theimage
imagefar-range.
far-range.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Forshortening,
Forshortening,
Layover,
Layover, and
and
Shadow
Shadow

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Relief
Relief Displacement:
Displacement:
Image
Image Layover
Layover

Image
Imagelayover
layover isisan
anextreme
extremecase
caseof ofimage
imageforeshortening.
foreshortening.ItIt
occurs
occurswhen whenthetheincident angle(())isissmaller
incidentangle smallerthan
thanthe
theforeslope
foreslope
((++))i.e.,
i.e.,<<+..
+

••This
Thisdistortion
distortioncannot
cannotbe
becorrected
correctedeven
evenwhen
whenthe
thesurface
surface
topography
topographyisisknown.
known.Great
Greatcare
caremust
mustbebeexercised
exercisedwhen
when
interpreting
interpretingradar
radarimages
imagesof
ofmountainous
mountainousareas
areaswhere
wherethe
the
thresholds
thresholdsfor
forimage
imagelayover
layoverexist.
exist.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
NPasadena
look
L-band
direction
SIR-C
NPasadena
look
L-band SIR-C(HH)
direction (HH)
July
July20,
20,1995
1995 Layover
Layover

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Shadows
Shadows

Shadows
Shadows in inradar
radarimages
imagescan canenhance
enhancethe
thegeomorphology
geomorphologyand and
texture
textureofofthe
theterrain.
terrain.Shadows
Shadowscan canalso
alsoobscure
obscurethethemost
most
important
importantfeatures
featuresin inaaradar
radarimage,
image,such
suchasasthe
theinformation
information
behind
behindtall
tallbuildings
buildingsor orland
landuse
usein
indeep
deepvalleys.
valleys.IfIfcertain
certain
conditions
conditionsarearemet,
met,any
anyfeature
featureprotruding
protrudingabove
abovethethelocal
local
datum
datumcan
cancause
causethetheincident
incidentpulse
pulseof
ofmicrowave
microwaveenergy
energytoto
reflect
reflectall
allof
ofits
itsenergy
energyon onthe
theforeslope
foreslopeofofthe
theobject
objectandand
produce
produceaablack
blackshadow
shadowfor forthe
thebackslope.
backslope.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Forshortening,
Forshortening,
Layover,
Layover, and
and
Shadow
Shadow

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Shadows
Shadows

angleisissteeper
•• AAbackslope 
backslopeisisin
inradar
radarshadow
shadowwhen whenits its angle steeper
angle((),),i.e.,
i.e.,>>..
than 
thanthe
thedepression
depressionangle

angle,==,,then
•• IfIfthe 
thebackslope
backslopeequals
equalsthethedepression
depressionangle, thenthe
the
backslope
backslopeisisjustjustbarely
barelyilluminated
illuminatedby
bythe
theincident
incidentenergy.
energy.
This
Thisisiscalled
calledgrazing
grazingillumination
illuminationbecause
becausethe
theradar
radarpulse
pulsejust
just
grazes
grazesthe thebackslope.
backslope.

•• The
Thebackslope
backslopeisisfully
fullyilluminated
illuminatedwhen
whenititisisless
lessthan
thanthe
the
depression angle ( < . )
depression angle ( < . )
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Shadow
Shadow Characteristics
Characteristics

••Unlike
Unlikeairphotos,
airphotos,where
wherelight
lightmay
maybebescattered
scatteredinto
intothe
theshadow
shadowarea
areaand
and
then
thenrecorded
recordedon onfilm,
film,there
thereisisno
noinformation
informationwithin
withinthe
theradar
radarshadow
shadow
area
area. .ItItisisblack
black. .

••Two
Twoterrain
terrainfeatures
features(e.g.,
(e.g.,mountains)
mountains)with
withidentical
identicalheights
heightsand
andfore-
fore-and
and
backslopes
backslopesmaymaybe berecorded
recordedwithwithentirely
entirelydifferent
differentshadows,
shadows,depending
depending
upon
uponwhere
wherethey
theyare
areininthe
theacross-track
across-track. .AAfeature
featurethat
thatcasts
castsan
anextensive
extensive
shadow
shadowininthe
thefar-range
far-rangemight
mighthave
haveits
itsbackslope
backslopecompletely
completelyilluminated
illuminatedinin
the
thenear-range.
near-range.

••Radar
Radarshadows
shadowsoccur
occuronly
onlyininthe
thecross-track
cross-trackdimension
dimension. .Therefore,
Therefore,the
the
orientation
orientationof
ofshadows
shadowsininaaradar
radarimage
imageprovides
providesinformation
informationabout
aboutthe
thelook
look
direction
directionand
andthe
thelocation
locationof
ofthe
thenear-
near-and
andfar-range.
far-range.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
Shuttle
ShuttleImaging
ImagingRadar
Radar(SIR-C)
(SIR-C)Image
Imageof
ofMaui
Maui

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 RADAR
RADAR Image
Image Speckle
Speckle

Speckle
Speckle isisaagrainy
grainysalt-and-pepper
salt-and-pepperpattern
patternin inradar
radarimagery
imagery
present
presentdue
duetotothe
thecoherent
coherentnature
natureof
ofthe
theradar
radarwave,
wave,which
which
causes
causesrandom
randomconstructive
constructiveandanddestructive
destructiveinterference,
interference,and and
hence
hencerandom
randombright
brightand
anddark
darkareas
areasin
inaaradar
radarimage.
image.The
The
speckle
specklecan
canbebereduced
reducedbybyprocessing
processingseparate
separateportions
portionsof
ofanan
aperture
apertureand
andrecombining
recombiningthese
theseportions
portionssosothat
thatinterference
interference
does
doesnot
notoccur.
occur.This
Thisprocess,
process,called
calledmultiple
multiplelooks
looksorornon-
non-
coherent
coherentintegration,
integration,produces
producesaamore
morepleasing
pleasingappearance,
appearance,and and
in
insome
somecases
casesmaymayaid
aidin
ininterpretation
interpretationofofthe
theimage
imagebutbutatataa
cost
costof
ofdegraded
degradedresolution.
resolution.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
16- -Look
1
c.
b.
a.
4 Lookradar
radarimage
image
1 - -Look
c.
b.
a.
4
16 Lookradar
radarimage
image

Number
Number
of
of Looks
Looks

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Synthetic
Synthetic Aperture
Aperture Radar
Radar Systems
Systems

AAmajor
majoradvance
advanceininradar radarremote
remotesensing
sensinghashasbeen
beenthe
theimprovement
improvementinin
azimuth
azimuthresolution
resolutionthrough
throughthe thedevelopment
developmentof ofsynthetic
syntheticaperture
apertureradar
radar
(SAR)
(SAR)systems.
systems.Remember,
Remember,ininaareal realaperture
apertureradar
radarsystem
systemthatthatthe
thesize
sizeof
of
the
theantenna
antenna((LL))isisinversely
inverselyproportional
proportionaltotothethesize
sizeof
ofthe
theangular
angularbeam
beam
width.
width.Great
Greatimprovement
improvementininazimuth azimuthresolution
resolutioncould
couldbe berealized
realizedififaa
longer
longerantenna
antennawere
wereused. used.Engineers
Engineershave
havedeveloped
developedprocedures
procedurestoto
synthesize
synthesizeaavery
verylonglongantenna
antennaelectronically.
electronically.Like
Likeaabrute
bruteforce
forceororreal
real
aperture
apertureradar,
radar,aasynthetic
syntheticaperture
apertureradar
radaralso
alsouses
usesaarelatively
relativelysmall
small
antenna
antenna(e.g.,
(e.g.,11m)m)thatthatsends
sendsoutoutaarelatively
relativelybroad
broadbeam
beamperpendicular
perpendiculartoto
the
theaircraft.
aircraft.The
Themajor
majordifference
differenceisisthat
thataagreater
greaternumber
numberof ofadditional
additional
beams
beamsarearesent
senttoward
towardthe theobject.
object.Doppler
Dopplerprinciples
principlesare
arethen
thenused
usedtoto
monitor
monitorthethereturns
returnsfrom fromallallthese
theseadditional
additionalmicrowave
microwavepulses
pulsestoto
synthesize
synthesizethe
theazimuth
azimuthresolution
resolutiontotobecome
becomeone onevery
verynarrow
narrowbeam beam. .
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Synthetic
Synthetic Aperture
Aperture Radar
Radar Systems
Systems

The
TheDoppler
Dopplerprinciple
principlestates
statesthat
thatthe
thefrequency
frequency(pitch)
(pitch)of
ofaasound
soundchanges
changesifif
the
thelistener
listenerand/or
and/orsource
sourceare
areininmotion
motionrelative
relativetotoone
oneanother.
another.

•• An
Anapproaching
approachingtrain trainwhistle
whistlewill willhave
haveananincreasingly
increasinglyhigher
higherfrequency
frequency
pitch
pitchas
asititapproaches.
approaches.ThisThispitch
pitchwill
willbebehighest
highestwhen
whenititisisdirectly
directly
perpendicular
perpendiculartotothe thelistener
listener(receiver).
(receiver).This
Thisisiscalled
calledthe
thepoint
pointofofzero
zero
Doppler.
Doppler.As Asthe
thetrain
trainpasses
passesby, by,its
itspitch
pitchwill
willdecrease
decreaseininfrequency
frequencyinin
proportion
proportiontotothe
thedistance
distanceititisisfrom
fromthe
thelistener
listener(receiver).
(receiver).This
Thisprinciple
principleisis
applicable
applicabletotoall
allharmonic
harmonicwave wavemotion,
motion,including
includingthe
themicrowaves
microwavesused usedinin
radar
radarsystems.
systems.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
Synthetic
Synthetic Aperture
Aperture Radar
Radar

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
8
7
6.5
98 object is a
e.
d.
c.
b.
a.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
time
radar
6.5
7
interference
pulses
nhologram
n+4
n+3
n+2
n+1 is aofsignal
8
7
e.
d.
c.
b.
a.1 object
6.5
98
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
time
radar
6.5
7
interference
constant
constantpulses
nhologram
n+4
n+3
n+2
n+1
distance
distance ofsignal
microwave
from energy
the flightline
microwave energy
from the flightline

Synthetic
SyntheticAperture
Aperture
RADAR
RADAR
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
6
7
9
8 etc.
coherent
987image
6
9
8
7 .5
etc.
radar
etc.
.5
etc.ofoflight
coherent
987image
radar light Creation
Creation of
of the
the
hologram
object
hologram
object RADAR
RADAR Image
Image

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
Optical
Optical Image
Image Correlation
Correlation

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
Synthetic
Synthetic Aperture
Aperture Radar
Radar

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Fundamental
Fundamental Radar
Radar Equation
Equation

The
Thefundamental
fundamentalradar
radarequation
equationis:
is:

11 11
PPr ==PPt xx GGt ____  Ar
r t t ____  Ar
44RR22 44RR22

where
wherePPr risispower
powerreceived,
received,PPt tisisthe
thepower
powertransmitted
transmittedtoward
towardthethe
target,
target,GGt tisisthe
thegain
gainofofthe
theantenna
antennaininthethedirection
directionofofthe
thetarget,
target,RRisisthe
the
range
rangedistance
distancefrom fromthe
thetransmitter
transmittertotothe target, isisthe
thetarget, theeffective
effective
backscatter
backscatterarea areaof
ofthe
thetarget,
target,and
andAAr risisthe
thearea
areaofofthe
thereceiving
receivingantenna.
antenna.

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Fundamental
Fundamental Radar
Radar Equation
Equation

The
Themodified
modifiedfundamental
fundamentalradar
radarequation
equationis:
is:

PPt xx GG22xx x

x
22
t
PPr == ________________
________________
r
(4 33
(4 x Rx R44

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Radar
Radar Backscatter Coefficient, ˚˚
Backscatter Coefficient,

Finally,
Finally,ititisisthe
theeffects
effectsofofterrain
terrainon
onthe
theradar
radarsignal
signalthat
thatweweare
aremost
most
interested
interestedin, in,i.e.
i.e.the
theamount
amountof ofradar cross-section, ,, ,reflected
radarcross-section reflectedback
backtotothe
the
receiver,
receiver,per
perunitunitarea
areaaaononthe
theground.
ground.This
Thisisiscalled
calledthe
theradar
radarbackscatter
backscatter
coeffieient((˚˚))and
coeffieient andisiscomputed
computedas as::

˚˚==
aa

••The
Theradar
radarbackscatter
backscattercoefficient
coefficientdetermines
determinesthe
thepercentage
percentageofofelectro-
electro-
magnetic
magneticenergy
energyreflected
reflectedback
backtotothe
theradar
radarfrom
fromwithin
withinaaresolution
resolutioncell,
cell,
e.g.
e.g.10
10xx10
10m.
m.The actual˚˚ for
Theactual foraasurface
surfacedepends
dependsononaanumber
numberof ofterrain
terrain
parameters
parameterslike
likegeometry,
geometry,surface
surfaceroughness,
roughness,moisture
moisturecontent,
content,and
andthe
the
radar
radarsystem
systemparameters
parameters(wavelength,
(wavelength,depression
depressionangle,
angle,polarization,
polarization,etc.).
etc.).
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Surface
Surface Roughness
Roughness

••Surface
Surfaceroughness
roughnessisisthe theterrain
terrainproperty
propertythatthatmost
moststrongly
stronglyinfluences
influences
the
thestrength
strengthofofthe
theradar
radarbackscatter.
backscatter.When Wheninterpreting
interpretingaerial
aerial
photography
photographywe weoften
oftenuseusethetheterminology
terminology--roughrough(coarse),
(coarse),intermediate,
intermediate,
or
orsmooth
smooth(fine)
(fine)--totodescribe
describethe thesurface
surfacetexture
texturecharacteristics.
characteristics.ItItisis
possible
possibletotoextend
extendthis
thisanalogy
analogytotothe theinterpretation
interpretationof ofradar
radarimagery
imageryifif
we
wekeep
keepininmind
mindthat
thatthethesurface
surfaceroughness
roughnesswe weare
aretalking
talkingabout
aboutisis
usually
usuallymeasured
measuredinincentimeters
centimeters(i.e.(i.e.the
theheight
heightofofstones,
stones,size
sizeofofleaves,
leaves,
or
orlength
lengthofofbranches
branchesininaatree)
tree)and
andnotnotthousands
thousandsof ofmeters
metersasaswith
with
mountains.
mountains.

••In
Inradar
radarimagery
imageryweweare
areactually
actuallytalking
talkingabout
aboutmicro-relief
micro-reliefsurface
surface
roughness
roughnesscharacteristics
characteristicsrather
ratherthan
thantopographic
topographicrelief.
relief. Jensen, 2000
Jensen, 2000
 Surface
Surface Roughness
Roughness

••There
Thereisisaarelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthe thewavelength
wavelengthof ofthe
theradar
radar
((),),the
thedepression angle((),),and
depressionangle andthe
thelocal
localheight
heightof
ofobjects
objects((hh
in
incm)cm)found
foundwithin
withinthe
theresolution
resolutioncell
cellbeing
beingilluminated
illuminatedby by
microwave
microwaveenergy.energy.ItItisiscalled
calledthe
themodified
modifiedRayleigh
Rayleighcriteria
criteria
and
andcan canbe
beused
usedtotopredict
predictwhat
whatthetheearth's
earth'ssurface
surfacewill
willlook
look
like
likein inaaradar
radarimage
imageififweweknow
knowthethesurface
surfaceroughness
roughness
characteristics
characteristicsand andthe
theradar
radarsystem parameters((,,,h,h))
systemparameters
mentioned.
mentioned.
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Surface
Surface
Roughness
Roughness
in
in RADAR
RADAR
Imagery
Imagery

Expected
Expectedsurface
surface
roughness
roughnessback-scatter
back-scatter
from
fromterrain
terrainilluminated
illuminated
with
with33cm
cmwavelength
wavelength
microwave
microwaveenergy
energywith
withaa
depression
depressionangle
angleof
of45˚.
45˚.

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Smooth
Smooth and
and Rough
Rough
Rayleigh
Rayleigh Criteria
Criteria

••The
Thearea
areawith
withsmooth
smoothsurface
surfaceroughness
roughnesssends
sendsback
backvery
verylittle
littlebackscatter
backscatter
toward
towardthe
theantenna,
antenna,i.e.
i.e.ititacts
actslike
likeaaspecular
specularreflecting
reflectingsurface
surfacewhere
wheremost
most
of
ofthe
theenergy
energybounces
bouncesoff offthetheterrain
terrainaway
awayfrom
fromthe
theantenna.
antenna.TheThesmall
small
amount
amountof ofback-scattered
back-scatteredenergyenergyreturned
returnedtotothe
theantenna
antennaisisrecorded
recordedandand
shows
showsupupasasaadark
darkarea
areaon onthe
theradar
radarimage.
image.TheThequantitative
quantitativeexpression
expressionofof
the
thesmooth
smoothcriteria
criteriais:
is:
hh<< ______
__
25 sin
25sin

AAbright
brightreturn
returnisisexpected
expectedififthe
themodified
modifiedRayleigh
Rayleighrough
roughcriteria
criteriaare
areused:
used:

____
hh>> __ __ Jensen,
Jensen,2000
sin
4.4 2000
4.4sin
Nile
NileRiver
RiverSudan
Sudan

Space
SpaceShuttle
Shuttle
Color-Infrared
Color-Infrared
Photograph
Photograph

SIR-C
SIR-CColor
ColorComposite:
Composite:
••Red
Red ==C-band
C-bandHV
HV
••Green = L-band HV
Green = L-band HV
••Blue
Blue ==L-band
L-bandHH
HH
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Major
MajorSources
Sourcesofof
RADAR
RADARScattering
Scattering
from
fromWoody
Woodyandand
Herbaceous
HerbaceousVegetation
Vegetation
Canopies
Canopies

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
volume
surface
surface
scattering
scattering
and
volume
surface
volume
surface
volume
scattering
scattering
and
from scattering
the top
from scattering
the top
Types
Typesof
ofActive
Active
from
of the
thecanopy
ground
from
of the
thecanopy
ground Microwave
MicrowaveSurface
Surface
and
andVolume
VolumeScattering
Scattering
that
thatTake
TakePlace
Placein
inaa
Hypothetical
HypotheticalPine
Pine
Forest
ForestStand
Stand

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Response
ResponseofofAAPine
PineForest
ForestStand
StandtotoX-,
X-,C-
C-and
andL-band
L-bandMicrowave
MicrowaveEnergy
Energy
a.a.
c.
b.
c.C-band
b.X-band
L-band
C-band
X-band
L-band
23.5
5.8
3 cm
cm
cm
23.5
5.8
3 cm
cm
cm

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 SIR-C/X-SAR
SIR-C/X-SAR
Images
Images ofof aa Portion
Portion
of
of Rondonia,
Rondonia,
Brazil,
Brazil, Obtained
Obtained on on
April
April 10,
10, 1994
1994

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
Pacific
San
Santa
San
Diego
Pacific
San
Santa
SanOcean
SIR-C/X-SAR
OceanImage
Diego
SIR-C/X-SAR
of Greater Los Angeles, California
Image of Greater Los Angeles, California
Monica
Fernando
Freeway
Fernando
Monica
Freeway The
TheCardinal
CardinalEffect
Effect
isisResponsible
Responsibleforforthe
the
Pronounced
PronouncedBright
Bright
Signature
SignatureofofPortions
Portions
ofofSanta
SantaMonica
Monicaand and
San
SanFernando
Fernandoin inthe
the
Space
SpaceShuttle
ShuttleSIR-
SIR-
C/X-SAR
C/X-SARImage
Imageof of
Los
LosAngeles,
Angeles,CA CAon on
October
October3,3,1994.
1994.

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
Shuttle
ShuttleImaging
ImagingRadar
Radar(SIR-C)
(SIR-C)
Image
Imageof
ofLos
LosAngeles
Angeles

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
b. Oblique
a. Radar Image
Photograph
of the Pentagon
of the Pentagon
a. Oblique
b. Radar Image
Photograph
of the Pentagon
of the Pentagon

Aerial
Aerial Photography
Photography andand
RADAR
RADAR Imagery
Imagery of
of the
the
Pentagon
Pentagon inin Washington,
Washington, DC
DC

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
RADARSAT
RADARSAT

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Geometric
GeometricRelationship
Relationship
Between
BetweenTwoTwoSAR
SAR
Systems
SystemsUsed
Usedfor
for
Interferometry
Interferometrytoto
Extract
ExtractTopographic
Topographic
Information
Information

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Intermap
IntermapX-band
X-bandStar
Star33iiOrthorectified
OrthorectifiedImage
Imageofof
Bachelor
BachelorMountain,
Mountain,CA
CAand
andDerived
DerivedDigital
DigitalElevation
ElevationModel
Model

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
SSM/I
SSM/IPassive
PassiveMicrowave
MicrowaveRadiometer
RadiometerImage
Imageof
of
the
theAmazon
AmazonBarin
BarinObtained
ObtainedatataaFrequency
Frequencyof
of
85
85GHz
GHzwith
withVertical
VerticalPolarization
Polarization

Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000