Management Level Engineering

Propellors
Fixed Pitch propellors
The fixed pitch propellor is commonly used in both
small and large vessels. The propellor is cast in
appropriate materials. It can be cast in one or on large
units a separate hub and individual blades.
Controllable Pitch Propellers
These have become the standard for vessels
where manoeuvring or station keeping are of a
high priority. The system comprises of a
propeller blades attached to a hub and which
are free to rotate through a crosshead
assembly arrangement in the hub. Older style
units had a push rod arrangement in side the
main shaft which is actuated by a servo piston
normally located close to the gear box. Where
as newer units are operated with hydraulic oil
which in turn moves a piston assembly in the
propeller hub.
 Remote from Hub Servo
Blade foot Blade carrier
Seal Ring Oil Supply / Feedback
Grease Return Linkage
Filled
Hub

Connecting Rod –
Closing Supported at
Oil
Plate Intervals
Yoke with Distribution
and Pin and Box with
Support Sliding Shoe White Metal
Bearing
Management Shafting
 Blade foot Blade carrier
Servo in Hub
Seal Ring Oil Supply / Feedback
Cylinder
Block Return Linkage

Oil Transfer
Closing Tubes –
Oil
Plate and Crank Pin Supported at
Distribution
Support and Sliding Intervals
Box
Shoe

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Servo in Hub

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Flange Mounted Propeller
CP Props

Hollow Shaft
for Control
Rods / Oil
Passages
Propeller
Boss

Fitted Bolts
and Dowels

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 Typical
CPP
Hydraulic
Circuit

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Hydraulic Circuit Directional Valve Control
Unit
From / To
Remote
Position
Emerg.
Connection Pitch
Valves Indicator

Lock
Valves

Pumps (2)

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CPP Control
Bridge Wing
Control
Bridge Control Bridge Wing
Control

Pitch Demand
Engine Control Speed Demand
Room Panel Air Signal
Central Control Feedback
Monitoring
Unit

Hydraulic System

Pitch
Transmitter Governor
Oil Distribution Engine
Box
Management Shafting
FIXED PITCH PROPELLORS SECURING

Traditionally the propeller was pressed on to the tapered

tail shaft by "Flogging" up the propeller nut The Taper was
1:15 or 1:12 and a key fitted to the shaft and propellor hub.
This type of fit was expected to be capable of
transmitting 1.5 times the normal torque. However, this
was not the case and the key ended up carrying
excessive amounts of torque. The key was intended as
a safeguard either against poor fitting, or against
reduced grip due to higher sea-water temperature and
differential expansion of bronze hub and steel shaft.
The keyways are milled in the shaft
taper and the key accommodated in
the bore of the hub, by slots
machined through. Ideally, the hub
and shaft tapers would be accurately
matched and the hub would be
stretched by being forced past the
point of fit on the shaft taper, by the
propeller nut. The 'push up' of a few
millimetres is calculated to give a
good interference fit.
Torque in the ideal condition is transmitted totally by the
interference fit, with the key being merely a back up. If conditions
are not as intended, fatigue cracks can occur at the forward end of
the keyway and more serious fatigue cracks may result from fretting
damage (or corrosion) particularly in high-powered single screw
ships.
Management Shafting
 Most likely the cracks had appeared as a
result of misapplication of heat to facilitate
removal of the propeller from the shaft or in
order to obtain a tighter fit. This type of
boss-cracking is normally associated with
the use of high intensity flames

Application of high intensity flames when

removing the propeller from the shaft may
cause
cracks in the hub after several months.

propeller bosses may be heated by the use of steam, or by heavily

insulated, low powered electric blanket controlled to give a maximum
temperature of 100ºC to 150ºC at the boss surface.

Management Shafting
Torque Transmission Issues
As ships got larger and the forces on the propellor increase a new way of
transmitting the forces from shaft to hub needed to be developed for various
reasons as seen below.

• The larger and heavier propellers required a tremendous press on force; this
could not be achieved with the old method, due to friction at the nut face and
on the threads. Often the result was yield at the thread or a locked nut.

• There was no method of evaluating the friction grip achieved at the taper.

• Stresses in the boss were unknown but certainly some plastic yield occurs
during the fitting process. After two or more removals and re-fittings failures
were commonplace.
Torque Transmission Issues
• Ahead movement contributed to
the push up, often it was difficult
to remove the propeller. On many
occasions direct heat was applied
to assist removal, resulting in
stress corrosion cracks.

• The different materials between

the shaft and the prop will expand
at different rates, which could
cause slip in warm climates.
Keyless Propellors
To combat these issues Keyless propellors
were developed to classification standards.
Lloyds require that the degree of
interference be such that the frictional force
at the interface can transmit 2.7 times the
nominal torque when the ambient
temperature is 35°C Lloyds also require that
at 0°C the stress at the propeller bore, as
given by the Von Mises stress criterion, shall
not exceed 60% of the 0.2% proof stress of
the propeller material as measured on a test
bar.
Keyless Propeller.

Classification societies require a factor of safety against

slipping of 2.7 times the maximum full load torque ahead,
2.2 times for astern (without the propeller nut) in sea water
at 35°C.

The friction grip depends on the stress applied,(ie. force applied

to contact faces), the co-efficient of friction between the
materials and the contact surface area.

Management Shafting
The success of a keyless propeller
depends on the accuracy of the hub
and shaft tapers and correct grip
from the stretched propeller hub on
the shaft. The degree of stretch (or
strain) is controlled by push up. It
must ensure adequate grip despite
any temperature changes and
consequent differential expansion of
bronze hub and steel shaft. It must
also avoid over stressing of the hub
and in particular any permanent
deformation.
How the forces are transmitted
The friction grip of the propellor
depends on the stress
applied(force between contact
faces) and the coefficient of
friction between material
contact area. This in turn
provides the forces to turn the
prop.
Dry Fit.

• Utilizes Sleave propellor ( sleeve

manufactured by tail shaft OEM)
• Propellor slid on dry shaft and pushed up
with Pilgrim nut or Hyd Jacks
• Pushed up certain distance according to
manufactures recommendations for
temperature
• After a few removals damage may be
cause on sleeve therefore need replaced.
 Propellor Nuts
Pilgrim Nut
• Contain the Hydraulic jacking
equipment.
• Manufactures pressures and
procedures must be followed.
• Prop removal can be assisted
by reversing the nut.
• Nut is locked into place with
locking rings when in transit.
Plain Securing Nut
• Manually tightened
• Used in conjunction with
Jacks for removal(packing
wood between to prevent
damage)
• Locking used as with pilgrim
nut.
Pilgrim Nut Nitrile Tyre
Loading
Chamber
Locking Ring
Device

Coarse
Thread
15mm
Pitch

Plug

Oil
Injection
Reversal of nut for prop removal.
Sleeved Propellor Propeller Boss – High
• Sleeve set in boss by Aluminium Bronze Strength,
injection of high-pressure High
Friction Epoxy Resin
araldite between sleeve and
boss.
• Incorporation of the sleeve 1 mm
also allows final machining to Cone
be carried out away from Propeller Sleeve –
Pearlitic Cast Iron
propellor hub
• Yellow metals, Bronze brass
also have a very low
coefficient of friction
Approximately 70-80% contact required for acceptable frictional grip

Management Shafting
Pilgrim (Sleeved) Propeller
0
Ambient 10
5 0.15
0.16 Push Up Curves
Push Up Travel
15
Temperature 25
20 0.17
0.18 Showing Effect on
30 0.19
35
0.20 Travel of Different
0.21
0.22 Co-efficients of
0.23
0.24 Friction
mm

Minimum
Push Up
Load Values
for Assembly
Temperature

Grip - 2.7 x Ahead Torque

2.2 x Astern Torque

Push Up Load MN

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Pilgrim (Sleeved) Propeller (dry fit)

Management Shafting
Wet Fit
Wet Fitting Propellor
• High pressure oil injected in
between shaft and propellor hub
• Expands hub and prop the pushed
up to required distance by pilgrim
nut
• Pressure based on temperature and
friction coefficient curve.
• Lower value of friction used in prop
torque calculations 0.13
Wet Fitted Propeller
Pilgrim (Sleeved) Propeller (removal)
Earthing
Pilgrim Nut Resin
Bond

Cone

Jacking Point
Pearlitic Cast Iron Propeller
Sleeve Boss
Management Shafting
 Cavitation
Cavitation
TheThe
propellor works
propeller workslike
likea arudder
rudder or
or aero planewing.
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It is a foil
a foil section
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is set seta at
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as aangle
smallofangle of incidence
incidence to the fluidtoflow,
thecaused
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is almost identical
identical to onetodrawn
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for a rudder rudder. thatThetheforce
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not symmetrical. The force
generated
propellor canby thebe
also propeller
resolved caninto
alsotrust
be resolved into thrust
and torque forces.andThistorque forces.
total forceThis total force
is made
is made up of a series of forces over the face and back of the blade.
up of a series of forces over the face and back of the blade.
Reduced
Pressure on
BACK

Increased
Pressure on
FACE

High pressure is created on the face of the blade while low or suction forces are created on
the back. The suction force is much greater than the pressure force, therefore the foil is
High pressure created on the face of the blade while low pressure or suction
forces are created on the back. The suction force is much greater than the
pressure force, therefor the foil is sucked through the water. It is this suction
force that causes us the problem of cavitation. As there is a relationship
between the pressure and vapour point of the water, bubbles form/boil and
then collapse hence cavitation.
Types of Cavitation
There are different patterns of
propeller cavitation that can occur on
a marine propeller and these are
usually grouped as:

• tip vortex cavitation

• sheet cavitation
• cloud cavitation
• bubble cavitation
• root cavitation
• face cavitation
• boss vortex cavitation
Tip Vortex Cavitation
Tip vortex propeller cavitation is due to low pressure within the vortices
shed at the blade tips. The vortices can often collapse on the leading
edge of the rudder or rudder horn causing severe erosion and pitting
damage there
 Sheet Cavitation
Blade sheet cavitation occurs when
large suction pressures build up near
the leading edge of the blade resulting
in the back of the blade being covered
with a sheet of bubbles and is largely a
function of the angle of attack of the
propeller blade sections to the varying
wake field encountered as the propeller
rotates. The greatest pressure
reductions occur on the back of the
blade, and this is where most sheet and
bubble cavitation takes place and high
tip speeds increase the possibility of
such cavitation.
Cloud Cavitation
Cloud cavitation is frequently found
close to the collapse area of sheet
cavitation and is extremely aggressive
due to the damaging effects of the
collapse of large numbers of bubbles
and should always be treated with
caution and, where possible, eliminated.
Bubble Cavaitation
Bubble cavitation usually
occurs at mid chord and is
usually associated with too
high a curvature or camber of
the blade sections. It can be
eliminated, if its presence can
be suspected, in the design
stage.
 Root Cavitation
Root cavitation may appear at different times in the
propeller’s rotation if the circulation round the root is
sufficiently strong and can be sufficiently aggressive
to cause erosion damage to the boss. When the root
vortices have passed down stream beyond the
propeller they unite into the boss vortex and often
appear in the form of a stranded rope with the
number of strands equal to the number of blades. If,
as is usual on single screw vessels, the rudder lies
immediately abaft the propeller the rope of bubbles
can collapse causing severe damage to the leading
edge of the rudder or rudder post.
Face Cavitation
Face propeller cavitation occurs on
the driving face of the propeller and
is often due to an incorrect pitch
distribution along the length of the
blade resulting in the tip pitch being
too small and the blade sections
developing a negative angle of
attack. Its results are frequently
found on controllable pitch units.
Boss/Hub Cavitation

Boss or hub vortex cavitation is

usually due to a high angle of
incidence between the direction of
flow of the water and the blade
leading edge in way. It can result in
the outer edge of the blade looking a
bit moth eaten.
Slip
Other questions come up on the calculation of slip.

The marine propeller is a helical screw, formed by a number of blades, with the blades set at an
angle.

The propeller really acts as an hydrofoil as it cuts through the water. Suction is created on the
“back” of the blade and pressure on the “face”. This propels the vessel through the water.
It can also be thought of as a screw acting in water twisting its way through the fluid. Thought of
in this way we can understand some of the terms used:
 Propellor slip
Vt= Thermotical
velocity
All these formulas can be expressed in a diagram:
V= Actual velocity

Va= Velocity actual

Sa=Apparent Slip

Sr=Real Slip

Wt=Wake Fraction

Real Slip=(Vt-Va)/Vt
 Cast Stainless Steel Propellers and Blades

Martensitic stainless steels have 10-16% chromium and small austenite

stabilizing addition of carbon, nickel, manganese and nitrogen that permit
heat treatment similar to the heat treatment of tool steels. Heat
treatment develops high strength, hardness and abrasion resistance. The
tempering temperature is about 5950 C. Martensitic stainless steels are
strongly magnetic, have higher strength than austenitic and duplex alloys,
and have excellent abrasion and wear resistance.
As can be seen from the table above, Martensitic Stainless Steels are
stronger and harder than the other common materials used for propeller
manufacture.
This allows the blades to be made thinner but still able to be within the
stress limits set by class. The impact test if the propeller is to be used in
Arctic conditions will be conducted at -100C.
Propeller material
Regarding your request to manufacture propellers from the SUS316L (Austenitic Stainless
Steel) material.
Ice-going vessels place very high demands for propeller strength. ABB propeller materials,
GX4Ni13-4 and 06Cr15Ni4CuMo (Both are Martensitic Stainless Steel), meet those
demands and possess very good strength properties. Both materials are of equal strength;
the lower limit for yield strength is 550MPa and the lower limit for tensile strength is
750MPa for both
materials. The SUS316L is a significantly less strong material; depending on heat treatment,
the yield strength is approximately 200MPa or even less. This does not prevent its usage in
propellers, but necessitates a significant increase in the thickness of the propeller blades,
especially in the leading and trailing edges and the blade tip (to prevent deformations on
those areas
In practice, thicker blades cause notable drop to propeller hydrodynamic efficiency. An
exact numerical value for the efficiency drop is difficult give without a detailed calculation,
but its magnitude is more like 10% not 1%.
ABB does not see that it is possible to manufacture efficient propellers for ice going vessels
from the SUS316L
material.
Copy of a reply to an ABB customer for a change of propeller material, Arctic use.
 Common Exam Questions
Dec 2017, March 2021, July 2022
Q.2 (a) Define propeller slip, explaining how it is calculated (2)
(b) State, with reasons, FOUR conditions which will affect propeller slip.(8)

July 2019
Q.3 With reference to a keyless propellor designed for hydraulic(wet) fit
and withdrawal:
1.Describe, with the aid of a sketch, how the propellor is fitted to the tail
shaft. (6)
2.State TWO advantages compared to a dry fit (2)
3.Explain How the trust is transmitted without the use of a key (2)
 Common Exam Questions
July 2020
Q.3 With reference to propellor cavitation:
1.Define Cavitation (2)
2.Describe FOUR detrimental effects of propellor cavitation (8)