LECTURE ONE

INTRODUCTION

1
INTRODUCTION
•Computer architecture deals with the functional behavior of a
computer system as viewed by a programmer.
◦ Computer architecture includes many elements such as
instruction sets and formats, operation codes, data types, the
number and types of registers, addressing modes, main memory
access methods, and various I/O mechanisms.
The architecture of a system directly affects the logical execution
of programs.
◦ How do I design a computer?

2
Introduction cont…
•Computer organization deals with structural relationships
that are not visible to the programmer, such as interfaces to
peripheral devices, the clock frequency, and the technology used
for the memory.
•Computer organization addresses issues such as control signals
(how the computer is controlled), signaling methods, and
memory types.
• It encompasses all physical aspects of computer systems.
•How does a computer work?

3
Why study computer organization and architecture?

Design better programs, including system

software such as compilers, operating systems,
and device drivers.
Optimize program behavior.
Evaluate (benchmark) computer system
performance.
Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs.

4
Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and
Software
Anything that can be done with software can also be done
with hardware, and anything that can be done with
hardware can also be done with software.

5
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Structure is the way in which the components relate to
each other.

Function is the operation of each individual component

as part of the structure.

6
FUNCTIONS
Basic functions that a computer can perform:
Data Processing – the data may take a wide variety of forms,
and the range of processing requirements is broad.
Data Storage –even if the data come in and get processed, and
results go out immediately, the computer must temporarily store
data. There is long-term or short-term temporary storage.
◦ Files of data are stored on the computer for subsequent
retrieval and update.

7
FUNCTION cont…
Data Movement: computer must be able to move data
between itself and the outside world.
• The computer ‘s operating environment consists of
devices that serve as either sources or destinations of data.
-when the data are received from or delivered to a device
that is directly connected to the computer, the process is
known as input/output, and the device is referred to as
peripheral.

8
FUNCTION cont…
when the data are moved over longer distances, to or from a
remote device, the process is known as data communications.
Control –there must be control of these three functions.
-This control is exercised by the individuals who provides
the computer with instructions.
- Within the computer, a control unit manages the
computer resources and the performance of its functional parts
in response to instructions.

9
STRUCTURE
There are four main structural components
◦ Central Processing Unit (CPU) – controls the operation of the computer
and performs its data processing functions. (often called processor)
◦ Main memory – stores data

◦ I/O – moves data between the computer and its external environment

◦ System interconnection – some mechanism that provides for

communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O.

10
THE COMPUTER

11
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

12
 STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
•There are many organizations that set computer
hardware standards-- to include the interoperability of
computer components.
•Some of the most important standards-setting groups
are:

13
STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS cont…

The Institute of Electrical and Electronic

Engineers(IEEE)
◦ Is an organization dedicated to the advancement of the
professions of electronic and computer engineering.
◦ Establishes standards for computer components, data
representation, and signaling protocols, among many
other things.

14
STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS cont…
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
oThe ITU concerns itself with the interoperability of
telecommunications systems, including telephone,
telegraph, and data communication systems.

15
STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS cont…
The International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
◦ Establishes worldwide standards for everything from
screw threads to photographic film.
◦ Is influential in formulating standards for computer
hardware and software, including their methods of
manufacture.

16
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
•Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines
(1642–1945)
•The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–
1953)
•The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers
(1954–1965)
•The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers
(1965–1980)
•The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers (1980–????)
17
 THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY
•As with any complex system, the computer can be
viewed from a number of perspectives, or levels, from the
highest “user” level to the lowest, transistor level.
•Each of these levels represents an abstraction of the
computer.

18
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…

19
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…

20
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…
User or Application-Program Level
•We are most familiar with the user, or application program level
of the computer.
•At this level, the user interacts with the computer by running
programs such as word processors, spreadsheet programs, or
games.
•Here the user sees the computer through the programs that run
on it, and little (if any) of its internal or lower-level structure is
visible.

21
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…
High Level Language Level
•Anyone who has programmed a computer in a high level
language such as C, Pascal, Fortran, or Java, has interacted with
the computer at this level.
•Here, a programmer sees only the language, and none of the low-
level details of the machine.
• At this level the programmer sees the data types and instructions
of the high-level language, but needs no knowledge of how those
data types are actually implemented in the machine.

22
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…
Assembly Language/Machine Code Level
•The compiler translates the source code to the actual
machine instructions, sometimes referred to as machine
language or machine code.
•Machine languages deal with hardware issues such as
registers and the transfer of data between them.
•The collection of machine instructions for a given machine
is referred to as the instruction set of that machine.

23
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…
The Control Level
•It is the control unit that effects the register transfers.
•It does so by means of control signals that transfer the
data from register to register, possibly through a logic
circuit that transforms it in some way.
•The control unit interprets the machine instructions one
by one, causing the specified register transfer or other
action to occur.

24
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…
Functional Unit Level
•The register transfers and other operations implemented
by the control unit move data in and out of “functional
units,” so-called because they perform some function that
is important to the operation of the computer.
• Functional units include internal CPU registers, the ALU,
and the computer’s main memory.

25
THE COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY cont…
Logic Gates, Transistors, and Wires
•The lowest levels at which any semblance of the
computer’s higher-level functioning is visible is at the
logic gate and transistor levels.
•It is from logic gates that the functional units are built,
and from transistors that logic gates are built.
•The logic gates implement the lowest-level logical
operations upon which the computer’s functioning
depends.
26
 THE VON NEUMANN MODEL
•On the ENIAC (1946-1955), all programming was done at
the digital logic level.
•Programming the computer involved moving plugs and
wires.
•The concept that a single instruction should be fetched
and executed from a common memory approach was
introduced in von Neumann model.
•Also introduces stored Program concept.

27
THE VON NEUMANN MODEL cont…
Version of the stored-program machine architecture
satisfies at least the following characteristics:
 Consists of three hardware systems: A central processing
unit (CPU); a main-memory system; and an I/O
system.
 Capacity to carry out sequential instruction processing
 Contains a single path, either physical or logical, between
the main memory system and the control unit of the CPU,
forcing alternation of instruction and execution cycles.

28
The von Neumann Architecture cont…

29
THE VON NEUMANN MODEL cont…
•The system shown in the figure passes all of its I/O
through the arithmetic logic unit (actually, it passes
through the accumulator, which is part of the ALU).
•This architecture runs programs in what is known as the
von Neumann execution cycle (also called the fetch-
decode-execute cycle), which describes how the machine
works.

30
 THE VON NEUMANN MODEL cont…

One iteration of the cycle is as follows:

1. The control unit fetches the next program instruction from the
memory, using the program counter to determine where the instruction is
located.
2. The instruction is decoded into a language the ALU can understand.
3. Any data operands required to execute the instruction are fetched from
memory and placed into registers within the CPU.
4. The ALU executes the instruction and places the results in registers or
memory.

31
The Modified von Neumann
Architecture, Adding a System Bus

32
The Modified von Neumann
Architecture, Adding a System Bus
•The data bus moves data from main memory to the CPU
registers (and vice versa).
•The address bus holds the address of the data that the data
bus is currently accessing.
• The control bus carries the necessary control signals that
specify how the information transfer is to take place.
•There is also a power bus for electrical power to the
components, which is not shown, but its presence is
understood.

33
The Modified von Neumann
Architecture, Adding a System Bus
•The data bus moves data among the system components.
•Some systems have separate data buses for moving
information to and from the CPU, in which case there is a
data-in bus and a data-out bus.
• More often a single data bus moves data in either
direction, although never both directions at the same
time.

34
The Modified von Neumann
Architecture, Adding a System Bus
•During a memory read or write operation the address bus
contains the address of the memory location where the data is to
be read from or written to.
•Note that the terms “read” and “write” are with respect to the CPU:
the CPU reads data from memory and writes data into memory.
•If data is to be read from memory then the data bus contains the
value read from that address in memory.
•If the data is to be written into memory then the data bus
contains the data value to be written into memory.

35
The Modified von Neumann
Architecture, Adding a System Bus
•The control bus can be thought of as coordinating
access to the data bus and to the address bus, and
directing data to specific components.

36